Jan Noyes

Computer- vs. paper-based tasks: Are they equivalent?

In 1992, Dillon published his critical review of the empirical literature on reading from paper vs. screen. However, the debate concerning the equivalence of computer- and paper-based tasks continues, especially with the growing interest in online assessment. The current paper reviews the literature over the last 15 years and contrasts the results of these more recent studies with Dillons findings. It is concluded that total equivalence is not possible to achieve, although developments in computer technology, more sophisticated comparative measures and more positive user attitudes have resulted in a continuing move towards achieving this goal. Many paper-based tasks used for assessment or evaluation have been transferred directly onto computers with little regard for any implications. This paper considers equivalence issues between the media by reviewing performance measures. While equivalence seems impossible, the importance of any differences appears specific to the task and required outcomes.

Gender Influences on Children's Computer Attitudes and Cognitions

Abstract The relative ‘explosion’ of computerised technology in recent years has been accompanied by a wealth of psychological research that has indicated a mixed response of attitudes to the now ubiquitous computer. Whilst many people hold positive attitudes about computers, many individuals express serious concerns and have been labelled ‘technophobic’. This study considers whether technophobia is a transitory phenomenon by assessing the computer attitudes and cognitions of 104 children aged 11 and 12 via self-report questionnaires. Contrary to previous reports (e.g. Rosen & Weil, 1992, Measuring technophobia: a manual for the administration and scoring of the computer anxiety rating scale (Form C), the computer thoughts survey (Form C) and the general attitudes towards computers scale (Form C). Version 1.1. California State University) the prevalence of technophobia was found to be low. Similarly the impact of psychological gender (sex and sex-role) was assessed and found, in general, not to significantly influence attitudes or cognitions towards computers. This does not support the notion that a technological gender gap is developing, nor the literature that suggests males hold more positive attitudes and cognitions than females. However, whilst in this instance it appears that the computer is viewed positively, it is tentatively suggested that looking to the future, technophobia will not be problematic.

A self-analysis of the NASA-TLX workload measure

Computer use and, more specifically, the administration of tests and materials online continue to proliferate. A number of subjective, self-report workload measures exist, but the National Aeronautics and Space Administration-Task Load Index (NASA-TLX) is probably the most well known and used. The aim of this paper is to consider the workload costs associated with the computer-based and paper versions of the NASA-TLX measure. It was found that there is a significant difference between the workload scores for the two media, with the computer version of the NASA-TLX incurring more workload. This has implications for the practical use of the NASA-TLX as well as for other computer-based workload measures.

Computer experience: A poor predictor of computer attitudes

Considerable research has focused on the relationship between computer experience and attitudes. This study aimed to identify those experience factors that are best able to predict computer attitudes. A questionnaire was designed to incorporate various measures of experience as defined by previous researchers. Reliability analyses were appropriate for both experience and attitude scales. Relationships between these constructs whilst significant (p<0.01) were at best moderate in magnitude, and experience factors were poor predictors of computer attitude scores. However, exploratory analyses showed that high levels of variance in the variable ‘computer confidence’ could be explained by quantifiable use data. It is concluded that current questionnaire scales inadequately reflect the many aspects of experience that contribute toward computer attitudes.

The QWERTY keyboard: a review

Abstract The Standard typewriter keyboard (nicknamed QWERTY) was designed over a century ago. During this time, QWERTY has become a controversial issue, because many individuals feel that the sequential keyboard market is being monopolized by a sub-optimum layout. Despite these feelings, in 1971 the International Standards Organization recognized QWERTY as the Standard keyboard, and a year later Alden, Daniels & Kanarick (1972) concluded that QWERTY was “the de facto Standard layout for Communications and computer interface keyboards”. This article reviews the origins of the QWERTY keyboard, and other sequential keyboards which have been developed since 1909. The reasoning behind the design of these other keyboards and the subsequent impact they made on the keyboard world are discussed. Various explanations are suggested as to why this previous research has not had any effect on the design of the QWERTY keyboard.

Paper‐based versus computer‐based assessment: is workload another test mode effect?

The article focuses on cognitive workload as a key factor which influence paper-based and computer-based assessment of the academic performance of university undergraduates. Cognitive workload has been defined as the interaction between demands of a task that an individual experiences and a persons ability to cope with theses demand. Cognitive workload can be relatively easily measured using subjective, self-report measures. One of the most widely used measures of cognitive workloads is NASA-TLX. It assesses workload on a number of dimensions and has been shown to be more reliable than other subjective workload scales.

How does our perception of risk influence decision-making? Implications for the design of risk information

Perceptions of risk are an inherent part of the decision-making process. What is more, risk perception can be understood as an individuals assessment of risk, and the adequacy of any risk assessment is reliant on the adequacy of the accessible risk information. Consequently, one way to understand the effect of risk perception on decision-making, and the approach taken in this literature review, is to understand how risk information is communicated and received by an individual. A number of factors are identified that have been found to influence perceptions of risk, which are related to the design of risk messages: the message (colour, signal word, surround shape, and the framing effect), the source of the message (credibility and trust), and the target of the message (risk target). It is concluded that, in order to design effective risk communications, and to facilitate decision-making and safe behaviour, these factors need to be considered, in a context-dependent manner.

Speech recognition technology for individuals with disabilities

There are estimated to be about 15 million people in the United States alone who are disabled to some degree, and it has been hypothesized that at least 10% of the worlds population experience some sort of physical impairment. Although such statistics are always open to debate, this does not detract from the suggestion that one of the most promising application areas for Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) is in helping people with disabilities. It is within this context that the advantages of speech recognition are discussed, both in general and with specific relation to this user group. During the last decade, the development of more sophisticated techniques for analyzing incoming speech combined with the increased processing power of microcomputers has resulted in improved recognition performance. Consequently, speech recognizers are now either operational or being considered in a variety of industrial tasks and in office and aerospace environments. ASR applications specific to disabled users are revie...

Workload and the use of automatic speech recognition: the effects of time and resource demands

Abstract Previous research has indicated that workload can have an adverse effect on the use of speech recognition systems. In this paper, the relationship between workload and speech is discussed, and two studies are reported. In the first study, time-stress is considered. In the second study, dual-task performance is considered. Both studies show workload to significantly reduce recognition accuracy and user performance. The nature of the impairment is shown to differ between individuals and types of workload. Furthermore, it appears that workload affects the selection of words to use, the articulation of the words and the relationship between speaking to ASR and performing other tasks. It is proposed that speaking to ASR is, in itself, demanding and that as workload increases so the ability to perform the task within the limits required by ASR suffers.

Automatic speech recognition in adverse environments

Technological developments in automatic speech recognition (ASR) technology over the last couple of decades have resulted in ASR being considered for use in an ever-increasing number of applications. However, a number of physical and psychological environments are still deemed inappropriate for this technology. Several of the stressors creating adverse environments are considered here, in conjunction with their effects on human speech production, human performance in general, and the implications for ASR system design. We propose that a combination of continuing technological developments, together with the application of system engineering and human factors, will lead to ensuring the attainment of robust ASR performance in a number of environments previously considered as high risk.