Kate J. Garland

Computer- vs. paper-based tasks: Are they equivalent?

In 1992, Dillon published his critical review of the empirical literature on reading from paper vs. screen. However, the debate concerning the equivalence of computer- and paper-based tasks continues, especially with the growing interest in online assessment. The current paper reviews the literature over the last 15 years and contrasts the results of these more recent studies with Dillons findings. It is concluded that total equivalence is not possible to achieve, although developments in computer technology, more sophisticated comparative measures and more positive user attitudes have resulted in a continuing move towards achieving this goal. Many paper-based tasks used for assessment or evaluation have been transferred directly onto computers with little regard for any implications. This paper considers equivalence issues between the media by reviewing performance measures. While equivalence seems impossible, the importance of any differences appears specific to the task and required outcomes.

Computer experience: A poor predictor of computer attitudes

Considerable research has focused on the relationship between computer experience and attitudes. This study aimed to identify those experience factors that are best able to predict computer attitudes. A questionnaire was designed to incorporate various measures of experience as defined by previous researchers. Reliability analyses were appropriate for both experience and attitude scales. Relationships between these constructs whilst significant (p<0.01) were at best moderate in magnitude, and experience factors were poor predictors of computer attitude scores. However, exploratory analyses showed that high levels of variance in the variable ‘computer confidence’ could be explained by quantifiable use data. It is concluded that current questionnaire scales inadequately reflect the many aspects of experience that contribute toward computer attitudes.

Paper‐based versus computer‐based assessment: is workload another test mode effect?

The article focuses on cognitive workload as a key factor which influence paper-based and computer-based assessment of the academic performance of university undergraduates. Cognitive workload has been defined as the interaction between demands of a task that an individual experiences and a persons ability to cope with theses demand. Cognitive workload can be relatively easily measured using subjective, self-report measures. One of the most widely used measures of cognitive workloads is NASA-TLX. It assesses workload on a number of dimensions and has been shown to be more reliable than other subjective workload scales.

CRT Monitors: do they interfere with learning?

Research suggests screen reading is slower and possibly less accurate than reading from paper. Six study and test sessions over 10 months examined correct scores and retrieval responses for learning material presented via these two media. Correct scores did not differ suggesting that close matching of material can eliminate any decrement in reading speed or accuracy from screens. However, the way in which knowledge was retrieved varied between the presentational formats. These differences were time related and suggest that repeated exposure and rehearsal of computer-based information is necessary to equate knowledge application with that achievable from hard copy alternatives. It is suggested that this difference might be due to cognitive interference caused by cathode-ray tube (CRT) monitor characteristics of refresh rates, fluctuating luminance, and contrast levels.

Attitudes and confidence towards computers and books as learning tools: A cross-sectional study of student cohorts

Students today comprise a very diverse group, and this will be reflected in their attitudes towards learning. This study set out to examine four different cohorts of UK students during the same time period. Contrary to expectations, it was found that attitudes towards books and computers, as measured by separate but matched scales, were equal, even though experience of the two media varied considerably. A key predictor for computer attitude was found to be confidence for learning from computers rather than general computer confidence. Further, attitudes and confidence towards books and computers as learning tools varied significantly across the four cohorts.

Explaining students' attitudes toward books and computers

Despite the increasing and now ubiquitous use of computer technologies, previous research by the authors has indicated a preference for using books over computers in the learning context. This paper presents a follow-up study, which investigates why there is this preference for books amongst the undergraduate population. It was found that findings from the previous study were replicated; namely, attitudes toward books were significantly more positive than attitudes toward computers. Further, significantly more respondents expected to learn more from books than computer-based material, and preferred to learn from books than computers. Reasons for these preferences included practical usability issues, media-related usability, experience and aesthetic values.

Students' attitudes toward books and computers

Many studies have compared paper and computers using objective performance measures. The aim of the study reported here was to extend this body of work by considering subjective measures. A questionnaire survey of 217 people showed that books were perceived more favorably than computers on all of the affective scales of Kays Computer Attitude Measure (CAM; 1993). Further, respondents preferred to learn from books rather than computers, and expected to learn more from them than computer-based material. The conclusion reached is that people have a strong affection for books, prefer them to computers for learning purposes, and expect to learn more from them.

Efficient electronic navigation: A metaphorical question?

Differences in navigation performance have been found for variation in the metaphor used to structure information layout within websites. Our study extends this work by examining three metaphors to clarify further whether differences can be attributed to the metaphors structure being spatial (versus non-spatial) or because it has greater familiarity. Participants were assigned a website and completed a structurally identical navigation task based on a specific metaphor description. Effects of metaphor were found for total task time, disorientation, and a combined accuracy measure. The house metaphor (spatial/familiar) produced significantly faster task times and more accurately retained metal models than both the town (spatial/unfamiliar) and social (non-spatial/unfamiliar) metaphors. Cognitive style, spatial ability and confidence had mixed and limited influence on the findings. The results suggest that navigation in website environments is facilitated more by the degree of familiarly perceived in the structure of the metaphor, than the spatial or non-spatial nature of the metaphor. This has major implications for the design of hypertext material, especially where the ability to locate information and recall it accurately is important rather than speed per se.

The effects of mandatory and optional use on students’ ratings of a computer‐based learning package

Continuing developments in educational technology and increasing undergraduate numbers in the UK have facilitated the use of computer-based learning packages. One of the effects of the increasing use of these packages is the shift in teaching of material from being primarily lecturer-led to student-driven. This has a number of implications concerning using the package, since it is quite likely that students will be working in isolation, and the use of the package may be mandatory or optional. In this study we report on the usefulness ratings of a software package for undergraduate use within the context of whether or not students choose to use it. Level 1 students and lecturers in Economics were surveyed at three UK universities. Findings indicate that students whose use was mandatory rated the learning package as more useful than those whose use was optional. Reasons for non-use centred on lack of instruction and on student apathy. These results have important implications for the use of computer-based learning packages and for understanding user attitudes.

Changes in Learning Expectations and Confidence toward Computers: A Study of Five Successive Years of Undergraduates

Undergraduate use, their confidence toward and expectations concerning learning from computers was surveyed over five consecutive years. Significant effects over time were found, with students from 2003 demonstrating more years of computer use and greater confidence, but no difference in hours of use. This suggests long term familiarity counts more than current usage in developing confidence. In order to relate computer confidence and expectations to actual learning performance, data from a second study is presented. This showed that higher computer learning expectations and confidence were associated with higher levels of learning as measured by correct scores. These findings suggest strong relationships exist between computer use, confidence and expectations, and that higher levels of which may lead to better learning performance.