Jan Pahl

The allocation of money and the structuring of inequality within marriage

Work on inequality, and on the distribution of power and advantage, has pointed to money as a key element. Thus Marx discusses the similarities between private and puUic hoarding of money; he suggests that when it is hoarded money becomes a form of social wealth*. As such, money puts sodal power in material form into the hands of private persons who exerdse it as individuals. He goes on to argue that private hoarding means that social power becomes the private power of private persons, and suggests that the political and economic effects of money are dependent on its economic nature as an expression of the division of society into autonomous economic individuals (Marx, 1859). More recently, Goldthorpe has considered the relationship between sodal inequality and the distribution of economic resources. He suggests that.

Money, power and inequality within marriage

The growing body of research on the intra-household economy suggests that in couple households there are significant associations between control over household finances and more general power within the household. However, most earlier research has been based on relatively small samples. Here a major new British data set, produced by the Social Change and Economic Life Initiative, is used to examine the relations between money, power and inequality within marriage. Six different systems of financial allocation are identified. The results suggest that even when couples nominally pool their money, in practice either husband or wife is likely to control the pool. In only one fifth of couples was the pool jointly controlled, but these households were characterised by the highest levels of equality between husband and wife in terms of decision making, experience of deprivation and access to personal spending money. Findings from the study indicate a complex pattern of relationships between household income level, household allocative system and gender. Female control of finances, though it was associated with greater decision-making power for women, did not protect them against financial deprivation; however, male control of finances, especially when it took the form of the housekeeping allowance, did serve to protect the financial interests of men in comparison with women. Gender inequality was least in households with joint control of pooled money and greatest either in low income households or in higher income households with male control of finances.

His money, her money: Recent research on financial organisation in marriage

This paper examines the control and allocation of money within the household, drawing on research carried out in Britain and elsewhere. The aim is to challenge the idea that the household is an economic unit within which resources are shared equitably. The focus is on couple-households and on the implications for individuals of different systems of money management. Six systems are identified, using categories developed for the Social Change and Economic Life Initiative. Male-managed systems were associated with higher income levels and with male privilege in terms of decision-making and personal spending money. Female-managed systems were associated with lower income levels and with greater financial deprivation for wives. Equality between husband and wife was greatest where money was pooled and managed jointly, but these constituted only one fifth of all households.

Household Spending, Personal Spending and the Control of Money in Marriage

Patterns of spending within a household reflect not only the sources and amount of the households income, but also who controls money within the household. This idea is explored using data from a study of 102 married couples, who were interviewed both together and separately. Three areas of spending are examined: food and daily living expenses, leisure expenditure, and domestic rates or poll tax. The results suggest that though in absolute terms men contribute more to the domestic economy than do women, in relative terms women contribute a higher proportion of their income. Compared with men, women hold less back, both absolutely and relatively, for their personal expenditure.

Patterns of Money Management within Marriage

Much social and economic policy is based upon units such as the tax unit or the household, and much of it makes certain assumptions about flows of resources within these units. This article focuses on the control and allocation of financial resources within households, drawing on work done in the past and on original material taken from a study of the problems of a group of women whose marriages had broken down because of violence. Concentrating on the household type which is composed of a married couple and their dependent children, the article outlines three broad types of allocation system – the whole wage system, the allowance system and the pooling system. It is suggested that there are links between the system of allocation within the family, the stage in the life cycle which the family has reached, the income level of the household, and the occupational, regional and ethnic culture within which the household is located. The article concludes by suggesting that a better knowledge of intra-household money flows would be relevant to discussion concerned with the distribution of poverty, the allocation of welfare benefits, and the contribution made by married womens earnings to family living standards, and that it would also contribute to a better understanding of marital tension and marital breakdown.

First diagnosis of severe mental handicap: characteristics of unsatisfactory encounters between doctors and parents.

This paper presents data from a study of 190 parents and discusses their reactions to being told that their child was likely to be severely mentally handicapped. Dissatisfaction was related to the childs age when the parents were first told about the impairment, which was itself related to the diagnosis of the childs condition. Parents of children with non-specific handicap were often not informed about the impairment until the second or third year of the childs life, while parents of children with Downs Syndrome were usually informed within a week of birth. The paper compares these two groups of parents and discusses the reasons for their dissatisfaction. The study showed that parents valued early acknowledgement of the problem, a sympathetic approach on the part of medical professionals, and the sharing of information and uncertainty. The reasons why parents of mentally handicapped children may continue to feel dissatisfied are discussed in the light of the theoretical literature on doctor-patient communication.

Individualisation in Couple Finances: Who Pays for the Children?

This article examines changing patterns of money management in the UK and elsewhere and argues that couples are becoming more individualised in their finances. It draws on quantitative and qualitative data and considers some of the implications of individualisation, in particular in terms of paying for children and childcare. The conclusion is that independent management of money may give both partners a sense of autonomy and personal freedom – so long as their incomes are broadly equivalent. However, if the womans income drops, for example when children are born, while her outgoings increase, because she is expected to pay the costs of children, the situation may change. Individualisation in money management can then be a route to inequality, so long as womens earnings are lower than mens and women are responsible for paying for children and childcare.

Couples and their money: patterns of accounting and accountability in the domestic economy

The financial arrangements of married and as‐married couples are examined in the light of ideas taken from the field of accounting and accountability. Data on couples and their money are drawn from the Family Expenditure Survey, and from focus groups and interviews. The data were collected in the course of a study on new forms of money, such as credit and debit cards, telephone and Internet banking. The results suggest that the accounting practices of couples are not necessarily consistent, but that they are meaningful. They are not consistent in that different parts of the intra‐household economy are likely to be subject to different types and levels of accountability. They are meaningful in that accounting practices reflect the economic position of the household, the relative incomes of husband and wife and fundamental aspects of their relationship. Banking arrangements, as they record financial history and map past and present relationships, offer a powerful guide to understanding wider issues within marriage and family life.

Health and Health Care Among Travellers

Travellers, or Gypsies, constitute a minority group with its own culture and traditions for whom access to health care can pose problems. A study of Traveller women and children showed that the sites where they lived were often lacking in facilities and provided a poor environment in terms of cleanliness and safety. Perinatal mortality was above average, and was especially high on sites with inadequate facilities and among the more mobile families. Immunisation and preventive care of children were both inadequate, especially among the more mobile. There continues to be a need for more, and better, permanent sites for Travellers. Other responses include allowing Traveller families to carry their own medical records, providing mobile clinics for Gypsy sites, and appointing specialist health visitors to ensure that Travellers get the heath care to which they are entitled.

Health Professionals and Violence Against Women

Abused women are more likely to be in touch with the health service than with any other agency. Yet research has suggested that health service professionals, such as general practitioners, health visitors and nurses, very often fail to help them. This may because the professionals never learned of the abuse, because they learned of the abuse but did not know how to help, or because what they offered was not perceived as helpful by the woman herself.