Jan R. Wiersema

Developmental changes in error monitoring: An event-related potential study

The aim of the study was to investigate the developmental trajectory of error monitoring. For this purpose, children (age 7-8), young adolescents (age 13-14) and adults (age 23-24) performed a Go/No-Go task and were compared on overt reaction time (RT) performance and on event-related potentials (ERPs), thought to reflect error detection (error-related negativity: ERN) and conscious evaluation (error positivity: Pe) of the error. RT on correct trials, variability of responding and percentage of errors decreased with age. The latencies of incorrect responses, compared to correct responses, were shorter in children and adolescents than in adults, indicative of developmental changes in impulsive response style. Groups did not differ in the ability to adjust response strategies after making an error (post-error slowing). The ERN amplitude increased with age, the Pe amplitude did not change with age. Possible explanations for the developmental changes in ERN are discussed.

Context-dependent Dynamic Processes in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Differentiating Common and Unique Effects of State Regulation Deficits and Delay Aversion

The ability to specify differential predictions is a mark of a scientific models’ value. State regulation deficits (SRD) and delay aversion (DAv) have both been hypothesized as context-dependent dynamic dysfunctions in ADHD. However, to date there has been no systematic comparison of their common and unique elements. Here we review these hypotheses—and describe the core and secondary manifestations of the two constructs and review evidence in support of them. Second, we focus on what are seen as the hallmark indicators of the two deficits—preference of small immediate over large delayed rewards for DAv and the slow event rate effect for SRD. We describe the overlap between these two manifestations and then explore how experimental manipulations and the analysis of neuropsychological and physiological mediators of effects can allow us to differentiate these two patterns of neuropsychological dysfunction on the basis of specific predictions. Finally, we highlight the implications of neuropsychological heterogeneity for the practical implementation of tests of DAv and SRD.

What would Karl Popper say - Are current psychological theories of ADHD falsifiable?

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a common and highly heritable neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorder. Here, we critically review four major psychological theories of ADHD – the Executive Dysfunction, the State Regulation, the Delay Aversion and the Dynamic Developmental – on their abilities to explain all the symptoms of ADHD, their testability and their openness to falsification. We conclude that theoreticians should focus, to a greater extent than currently practiced, on developing refutable theories of ADHD.

ERP Correlates of Effortful Control in Children with Varying Levels of ADHD Symptoms

As effortful control (EC), the self-regulation aspect of temperament, has been argued to play a key role in the normal and psychopathological course of development, research adding to the construct validity of EC is needed. In the current study, interrelations between the temperament construct of EC and the efficiency of the executive attention network, argued to underlie EC, were investigated, using event-related potentials (ERPs). In general, children scoring low on EC questionnaires made more errors of commission in the Go/No-Go task and showed smaller No-Go N2 or No-Go P3 amplitudes, two ERP components related to the executive attention network. The two EC scales (Effortful Control Scale and Attentional Control Scale), used in the current study, were differentially related to the outcome, indicating that they may measure different constructs. No-Go P3 amplitude was noted to be associated more strongly with EC than No-Go N2 amplitude. EC was found to be implicated in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptomatology, as children scoring high on ADHD symptoms scored low on EC questionnaires, made more errors of commission, and showed smaller No-Go P3 amplitudes.

Developmental changes in mu suppression to observed and executed actions in autism spectrum disorders

There has been debate over whether disruptions in the mirror neuron system (MNS) play a key role in the core social deficits observed in autism spectrum disorders (ASD). EEG mu suppression during the observation of biological actions is believed to reflect MNS functioning, but understanding of the developmental progression of the MNS and EEG mu rhythm in both typical and atypical development is lacking. To provide a more thorough and direct exploration of the development of mu suppression in individuals with ASD, a sample of 66 individuals with ASD and 51 typically developing individuals of 6-17 years old were pooled from four previously published studies employing similar EEG methodology. We found a significant correlation between age and mu suppression in response to the observation of actions, both for individuals with ASD and typical individuals. This relationship was not seen during the execution of actions. Additionally, the strength of the correlation during the observation of actions did not significantly differ between groups. The results provide evidence against the argument that mirror neuron dysfunction improves with age in individuals with ASD and suggest, instead, that a diagnosis-independent developmental change may be at the root of the correlation of age and mu suppression.

Resting electroencephalogram in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Developmental course and diagnostic value

This study investigated electroencephalographic (EEG) activity and its developmental course in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) throughout the lifespan, as well as the accuracy of EEG parameters in distinguishing ADHD patients from typically developing individuals. Three minutes eyes closed resting EEG was compared between 62 individuals with ADHD (36 children, 26 adults) and 55 typically developing individuals (30 children, 25 adults). EEG activity and maturation did not differ between individuals with ADHD and typically developing individuals. However, despite comparable developmental course between clinical groups, persistent elevated theta/beta ratio and reduced relative beta power were observed in the ADHD inattentive subtype compared to the ADHD combined subtype and controls across the lifespan. Therefore, a maturational deviation rather than a maturational delay may underlie a subgroup of ADHD. EEG based classification failed for ADHD but proved successful for age. These findings emphasize heterogeneity in ADHD throughout the lifespan and question clinical utility of conventional EEG approaches for diagnostic purposes in ADHD.

Is Nonsuicidal Self-Injury Associated With Parenting and Family Factors?

The present study investigates the association of parenting and family factors with nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) in preadolescents. A sample of 1,439 preadolescents and their parents were assessed by means of (a) adolescent-reported parenting behaviors (support and behavioral/psychological control), (b) parent-reported parenting behaviors (support and behavioral/psychological control) and parenting stress, and (c) parent-reported family structure, socioeconomic status (SES) of the family, family functioning, and family stressful life-events. The prevalence of NSSI was 4.82%. Preadolescents engaging in NSSI perceived more psychological and behavioral control from their parents. Logistic regression using parent-reported parenting behaviors as covariates showed a significant interaction between parent-reported support and behavioral control in relation to NSSI behaviors. No significant differences in parent-reported parenting stress and family structure emerged. Significant differences in parent-reported SES of families with and without self-injurious preadolescents were found. Finally, no significant associations appeared between the presence of NSSI and parent-reported family functioning and stressful life-events.

Infants' mu suppression during the observation of real and mimicked goal‐directed actions

Since their discovery in the early 1990s, mirror neurons have been proposed to be related to many social-communicative abilities, such as imitation. However, research into the early manifestations of the putative neural mirroring system and its role in early social development is still inconclusive. In the current EEG study, mu suppression, generally thought to reflect activity in neural mirroring systems was investigated in 18- to 30-month-olds during the observation of object manipulations as well as mimicked actions. EEG power data recorded from frontal, central, and parietal electrodes were analysed. As predicted, based on previous research, mu wave suppression was found over central electrodes during action observation and execution. In addition, a similar suppression was found during the observation of intransitive, mimicked hand movements. To a lesser extent, the results also showed mu suppression at parietal electrode sites, over all three conditions. Mu wave suppression during the observation of hand movements and during the execution of actions was significantly correlated with quality of imitation, but not with age or language level.

Neural mirroring during the observation of live and video actions in infants

OBJECTIVE Previous infant studies investigated neural mirroring during the observation of live or video actions. However, both methods have their (dis)advantages and studies using one of these methods are not always directly comparable. Therefore, the present study directly compared neural mirroring activity in a video setting with a live setting in infants between 18 and 36 months old. METHODS Central mu rhythm suppression was measured through EEG recordings during the observation and imitation of the same goal-directed and mimicked actions presented either on video or live. RESULTS Results revealed significant mu suppression during action imitation in both settings but stronger mu suppression was observed in the live setting during this condition. Significant mu suppression during the observation of goal-directed actions and mimicked actions was only observed in the live setting. CONCLUSION This study revealed a different influence of video and live actions on neural mirroring activity in infants. SIGNIFICANCE It is recommended to use live actions to investigate neural mirroring in young children.

Anticipatory processes in brain state switching — Evidence from a novel cued-switching task implicating default mode and salience networks

The default mode network (DMN) is the core brain system supporting internally oriented cognition. The ability to attenuate the DMN when switching to externally oriented processing is a prerequisite for effective performance and adaptive self-regulation. Right anterior insula (rAI), a core hub of the salience network (SN), has been proposed to control the switching from DMN to task-relevant brain networks. Little is currently known about the extent of anticipatory processes subserved by DMN and SN during switching. We investigated anticipatory DMN and SN modulation using a novel cued-switching task of between-state (rest-to-task/task-to-rest) and within-state (task-to-task) transitions. Twenty healthy adults performed the task implemented in an event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) design. Increases in activity were observed in the DMN regions in response to cues signalling upcoming rest. DMN attenuation was observed for rest-to-task switch cues. Obversely, DMN was up-regulated by task-to-rest cues. The strongest rAI response was observed to rest-to-task switch cues. Task-to-task switch cues elicited smaller rAI activation, whereas no significant rAI activation occurred for task-to-rest switches. Our data provide the first evidence that DMN modulation occurs rapidly and can be elicited by short duration cues signalling rest- and task-related state switches. The role of rAI appears to be limited to certain switch types - those implicating transition from a resting state and to tasks involving active cognitive engagement.