Janet B. Parks

Attitudes Toward Women Mediate the Gender Effect on Attitudes Toward Sexist Language

Studies of attitudes toward sexist language have consistently revealed a gender gap, with women considerably more supportive of inclusive language than men. The present study investigated this gender gap in the presence of “attitudes toward women,” a potential mediator variable. Participants were a convenience sample of 18- to 20-year-old college students (N = 278). Most were European American/White (87%) women (60%). Data were collected using the Modern Sexism Scale, Neosexism Scale, Attitudes Toward Women Scale, and Inventory of Attitudes Toward Sexist/Nonsexist Language-General. The customary gender gap in attitudes toward sexist language was found in this sample. Regression tests of mediation, however, revealed that when measures of attitudes toward women were included in the analysis, the gender effect diminished by as much as 61% (p < .01). These findings provide empirical evidence of a link between attitudes toward sexist language and the cultural construct, attitudes toward women.

The Paradox of the Contented Working Woman in Intercollegiate Athletics Administration

We investigated the paradox of the contented working woman among middle and first-line intercollegiate athletics administrators. In this paradox, women report lower salaries than men but express comparable job satisfaction. The sample comprised 143 women and 371 men in 106 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I-A institutions. Job satisfaction was measured with the Job Descriptive Index (Smith, Kendall & Hulin, 1969) and Job in General (Ironson, Smith, Brannick, Gibson & Paul, 1989) scales. Analyses revealed the existence of the paradox: Women were paid significantly less, but were equally satisfied with their jobs. Neither gender was satisfied with promotion opportunities or pay, but both were highly satisfied with their jobs in general--another apparent paradox. The disproportionate number of male respondents raised questions about gender equity in athletics administration.

Development and Validation of an Instrument To Measure Attitudes toward Sexist/Nonsexist Language.

Despite documented, negative effects of sexist language, some people still strongly oppose inclusive language. Their attitudes need study, but existing measures of attitude lack comprehensiveness or validity. This paper reports construction and validation of the 42-item Inventory of Attitudes Toward Sexist/Nonsexist Language (IASNL), which is based on a conceptual framework related to beliefs about language, recognition of sexist language, and willingness to use inclusive language. Four studies tested the IASNLs content validity (9 content experts, 329 other participants), construct validity, and reliability (31 advocates of inclusive language, 298 additional respondents). Cronbach alphas were high and validity measures were strong. Two short forms of the IASNL were also created—the IASNL-General and the IASNL-Sport. The IASNL-General is in the Appendix.

Influence of Age, Gender, and Context on Attitudes Toward Sexist/Nonsexist Language: Is Sport a Special Case?

This study examined the influence of age andgender on attitudes toward sexist/nonsexist language insport and nonsport contexts. College students,university personnel, and business people (N = 292) took the Inventory of Attitudes towardSexist/Nonsexist Language. Seven percent wereAfrican-American, 2% Asian-American, 2%Hispanic-American, 1% Native American, 85%European-American, and 3% “other.” They averaged 3.34 on a 5-point scale,indicating ambivalence. Participants 23 years old andabove were more favorable toward nonsexist language thanwere younger participants (p < .01). Women were more supportive than men (p < .01). Age andgender explained 23% of the variance. The significantdifference between sport/nonsport contexts was notmeaningful, nor was a significant gender by contextinteraction. Sport was not a special case of resistance tononsexist language.

Generation Gaps in Attitudes Toward Sexist/Nonsexist Language:

This study of attitudes toward sexist/nonsexist language reveals generation gaps in a sample of 18- to 87-year-olds (N = 370). On average, participants are undecided about the merits of inclusive language, but older participants are more supportive than 18- to 22-year-olds. Attitudes toward women are a significant predictor of attitudes toward sexist/nonsexist language in all age—gender groups. Education is a stronger predictor than age; perspective-taking ability and gender self-esteem are each significant predictors for one age—gender group.

Explaining Age and Gender Effects on Attitudes toward Sexist Language

This study examined perspective taking, empathic concern, and attitude toward women as potential mediators of age and gender effects on college students’ attitudes toward sexist language. Perspective taking fully mediated the small age effect found in men. Attitude toward women partially mediated the gender effect, reducing it by 51%.Empathic concern mediated neither age nor gender effects.

ExSport 1: An Expert System for Sport Management Career Counseling

Important components of career counseling include: (a) determination of students; interests and (b) indentification of careers that are compatible with those interests. ExSport 1 is an expert systems model designed to simulate the counseling process and to assist students in identifying sport management careers that are compatible with their interests. Users consult the system by answering eighteen queries pertaining to their professional interests. They then move into knowledge bases that provide information about specific sport management careers that appear to be compatible with their expressed interests. In this paper, the need for sport management career counseling is discussed, the advantages of artificial intelligence and expert systems are presented and the development of ExSport 1 is explained.