Mary Ann Roberton

The Association Between Motor Skill Competence and Physical Fitness in Young Adults

We examined the relationship between competence in three fundamental motor skills (throwing, kicking, and jumping) and six measures of health-related physical fitness in young adults (ages 18–25). We assessed motor skill competence using product scores of maximum kicking and throwing speed and maximum jumping distance. A factor analysis indicated the 12-min run/walk, percent body fat, curl-ups, grip strength, and maximum leg press strength all loaded on one factor defining the construct of “overall fitness.” Multiple regression analyses indicated that the product scores for jumping (74%), kicking (58%), and throwing (59%) predicted 79% of the variance in overall fitness. Gender was not a significant predictor of fitness. Results suggest that developing motor skill competence may be fundamental in developing and maintaining adequate physical fitness into adulthood. These data represent the strongest to date on the relationship between motor skill competence and physical fitness.

Predicting Children's Overarm Throw Ball Velocities from Their Developmental Levels in Throwing

Abstract This study examined the movement process-product relationship from a developmental perspective. The authors used multiple regression to investigate the changing relationship between qualitative movement descriptions of the overarm throw and the throwing outcome, horizontal ball velocity. Seventeen girls and 22 boys were filmed longitudinally at ages 6, 7, 8, and 13 years. Their movements were assessed using Robertons (Roberton & Halverson, 1984) developmental sequences for action of the humerus, forearm, trunk, stepping and stride length. The sequences accounted for 69–85% (adjusted) of the total velocity variance each year. The components that best predicted ball velocity changed over time, although humerus or forearm action always accounted for considerable variance. Gender was a good predictor of ball velocity, but if the developmental descriptions were entered first in a stepwise regression, gender then explained no more than 2% additional variance.

Attitudes Toward Women Mediate the Gender Effect on Attitudes Toward Sexist Language

Studies of attitudes toward sexist language have consistently revealed a gender gap, with women considerably more supportive of inclusive language than men. The present study investigated this gender gap in the presence of “attitudes toward women,” a potential mediator variable. Participants were a convenience sample of 18- to 20-year-old college students (N = 278). Most were European American/White (87%) women (60%). Data were collected using the Modern Sexism Scale, Neosexism Scale, Attitudes Toward Women Scale, and Inventory of Attitudes Toward Sexist/Nonsexist Language-General. The customary gender gap in attitudes toward sexist language was found in this sample. Regression tests of mediation, however, revealed that when measures of attitudes toward women were included in the analysis, the gender effect diminished by as much as 61% (p < .01). These findings provide empirical evidence of a link between attitudes toward sexist language and the cultural construct, attitudes toward women.

Individual Pathways in the Development of Forceful Throwing

Abstract Halverson, Roberton, and Langendorfer (1982) reported the development of children ages 6–13 years filmed longitudinally performing the forceful overarm throw. These authors described the childrens progress through developmental sequences for trunk, humerus, and forearm actions; however, they did not study developmental relationships (“profiles”) across these components. This paper reports how the profiles changed in the same children across trials within filming sessions and over time. The data revealed both common and individual developmental pathways. The frequencies of some pathways were not chance occurrences (p ≤ .01), suggesting that within-person constraints eliminated certain movement relationships while encouraging others. The authors hypothesize that the kinematics of trunk rotation may serve as a control parameter for pattern change.

The Paradox of the Contented Working Woman in Intercollegiate Athletics Administration

We investigated the paradox of the contented working woman among middle and first-line intercollegiate athletics administrators. In this paradox, women report lower salaries than men but express comparable job satisfaction. The sample comprised 143 women and 371 men in 106 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I-A institutions. Job satisfaction was measured with the Job Descriptive Index (Smith, Kendall & Hulin, 1969) and Job in General (Ironson, Smith, Brannick, Gibson & Paul, 1989) scales. Analyses revealed the existence of the paradox: Women were paid significantly less, but were equally satisfied with their jobs. Neither gender was satisfied with promotion opportunities or pay, but both were highly satisfied with their jobs in general--another apparent paradox. The disproportionate number of male respondents raised questions about gender equity in athletics administration.

Development and Validation of an Instrument To Measure Attitudes toward Sexist/Nonsexist Language.

Despite documented, negative effects of sexist language, some people still strongly oppose inclusive language. Their attitudes need study, but existing measures of attitude lack comprehensiveness or validity. This paper reports construction and validation of the 42-item Inventory of Attitudes Toward Sexist/Nonsexist Language (IASNL), which is based on a conceptual framework related to beliefs about language, recognition of sexist language, and willingness to use inclusive language. Four studies tested the IASNLs content validity (9 content experts, 329 other participants), construct validity, and reliability (31 advocates of inclusive language, 298 additional respondents). Cronbach alphas were high and validity measures were strong. Two short forms of the IASNL were also created—the IASNL-General and the IASNL-Sport. The IASNL-General is in the Appendix.

Does the throwing gender gap occur in Germany

Boys and girls in the U.S. consistently demonstrate large developmental differences in the overarm throw for force. Thomas and French (1985) applied a meta-analysis to 16 throwing studies and found that these gender differences started as early as 3 years of age. The differences grew to 2–3 standard deviations by the teen years. Regardless of whether the dependent variable was the distance thrown, ball velocity, or the developmental level of the movements used, boys were developmentally more advanced than girls. Recently, Pulito Runion, Roberton, and Langendorfer (2003) replicated these findings in 13-year-olds. The gender difference in ball velocity was 1.8 standard deviations. Reasons for this “gender gap” are unclear. Williams, Haywood, and Painter (1996) found no gender differences in ball velocities when they asked 7–12-year-olds to throw with their nondominant arm. They conjectured that boys practiced throwing more than girls, which made them superior on their dominant side. Nelson, Thomas, and Nelson (1991) found little longitudinal change over 3 years in girls’ throwing patterns. They also speculated that this lack of change reflected less practice. On the other hand, Thomas and French (1985) and Nelson, Thomas, Nelson, and Abraham (1986) concluded that biology must be at least partially responsible for the gender gap. The latter reported that three anthropometric measures (joint diameters, shoulder/hip ratio, sum of skinfolds) and only one environmental measure (playing with other children) accounted for 41% of the variance in the distance 5-year-olds could throw. These studies occurred in the U.S., a country that encourages male skillfulness in throwing through its cultural emphasis on sports like baseball, football, and softball. Newell’s (1986) constraints theory (that levels of motor development emerge from the intersection of environment, person, and task) suggested that changing the cultural environment might affect the throwing movements children display. Different cultures form different constraints on gender. Indeed, the term “gender” represents biological sex overlaid with cultural expectations about appropriate behavior for that sex. Adopting the Newell model in the present study, we asked whether the gender gap would occur in a culture in which throwing was not particularly encouraged. In such a culture, we speculated that boys would practice the throw less than boys in the U.S. and, therefore, not be as developmentally ahead of girls. To examine our cultural hypothesis, we replicated the Pulito Runion et al. (2003) throwing study in Germany, where the most popular sport is Fußball (soccer; Flippo, 1996). Over 1.5 million 7–14-year-olds participate in this sport (Hedderich, 2005). The only throwing sport some German children play is team handball, but, in contrast to Fußball, only 200,000 7–14-year-olds participate (Hedderich, 2005). For these reasons, we hypothesized that German teens would report less throwing practice than U.S. teens, but, like U.S. teens, they would consider ball throwing appropriate for both genders. Second, we hypothesized that the gender gap in ball velocities would be smaller in Germany than in the U.S., causing a significant gender by country interaction. We also hypothesized that the German teens would show gender differences in fewer movement components of the throw than U.S. teens. Does the Throwing “Gender Gap” Occur in Germany?

Influence of Age, Gender, and Context on Attitudes Toward Sexist/Nonsexist Language: Is Sport a Special Case?

This study examined the influence of age andgender on attitudes toward sexist/nonsexist language insport and nonsport contexts. College students,university personnel, and business people (N = 292) took the Inventory of Attitudes towardSexist/Nonsexist Language. Seven percent wereAfrican-American, 2% Asian-American, 2%Hispanic-American, 1% Native American, 85%European-American, and 3% “other.” They averaged 3.34 on a 5-point scale,indicating ambivalence. Participants 23 years old andabove were more favorable toward nonsexist language thanwere younger participants (p < .01). Women were more supportive than men (p < .01). Age andgender explained 23% of the variance. The significantdifference between sport/nonsport contexts was notmeaningful, nor was a significant gender by contextinteraction. Sport was not a special case of resistance tononsexist language.

Generation Gaps in Attitudes Toward Sexist/Nonsexist Language:

This study of attitudes toward sexist/nonsexist language reveals generation gaps in a sample of 18- to 87-year-olds (N = 370). On average, participants are undecided about the merits of inclusive language, but older participants are more supportive than 18- to 22-year-olds. Attitudes toward women are a significant predictor of attitudes toward sexist/nonsexist language in all age—gender groups. Education is a stronger predictor than age; perspective-taking ability and gender self-esteem are each significant predictors for one age—gender group.

Explaining Age and Gender Effects on Attitudes toward Sexist Language

This study examined perspective taking, empathic concern, and attitude toward women as potential mediators of age and gender effects on college students’ attitudes toward sexist language. Perspective taking fully mediated the small age effect found in men. Attitude toward women partially mediated the gender effect, reducing it by 51%.Empathic concern mediated neither age nor gender effects.