Jantana Wongsantichon

Identification, characterization and structure of a new Delta class glutathione transferase isoenzyme

The insect GST (glutathione transferase) supergene family encodes a varied group of proteins belonging to at least six individual classes. Interest in insect GSTs has focused on their role in conferring insecticide resistance. Previously from the mosquito malaria vector Anopheles dirus, two genes encoding five Delta class GSTs have been characterized for structural as well as enzyme activities. We have obtained a new Delta class GST gene and isoenzyme from A. dirus, which we name adGSTD5-5. The adGSTD5-5 isoenzyme was identified and was only detectably expressed in A. dirus adult females. A putative promoter analysis suggests that this GST has an involvement in oogenesis. The enzyme displayed little activity for classical GST substrates, although it possessed the greatest activity for DDT [1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis-(p-chlorophenyl)ethane] observed for Delta GSTs. However, GST activity was inhibited or enhanced in the presence of various fatty acids, suggesting that the enzyme may be modulated by fatty acids. We obtained a crystal structure for adGSTD5-5 and compared it with other Delta GSTs, which showed that adGSTD5-5 possesses an elongated and more polar active-site topology.

Insect glutathione transferases.

This article is an overview of the current knowledge of insect glutathione transferases. Three major topics are discussed: the glutathione transferase contributions to insecticide resistance, the polymorphic nature of the insect glutathione transferase superfamily, and a summary of the current structure-function studies on insect glutathione transferases.

A preliminary characterization of the cytosolic glutathione transferase proteome from Drosophila melanogaster

The cytosolic GST (glutathione transferase) superfamily has been annotated in the Drosophila melanogaster genome database. Of 36 genes, four undergo alternative splicing to yield a total of 41 GST proteins. In the present study, we have obtained the 41 transcripts encoding proteins by RT (reverse transcription)-PCR using RNA template from Drosophila S2 cells, an embryonic cell line. This observation suggests that all of the annotated DmGSTs (D. melanogaster GSTs) in the proteome are expressed in the late embryonic stages of D. melanogaster. To avoid confusion in naming these numerous DmGSTs, we have designated them following the universal GST nomenclature as well as previous designations that fit within this classification. Furthermore, in the cell line, we identified an apparent processed pseudogene, gste8, in addition to two isoforms from the Delta class that have been published previously. Only approximately one-third of the expressed DmGSTs could be purified by conventional GSH affinity chromatography. The diverse kinetic properties as well as physiological substrate specificity of the DmGSTs are such that each individual enzyme displayed a unique character even compared with members from the same class.

An ER-directed gelsolin nanobody targets the first step in amyloid formation in a gelsolin amyloidosis mouse model

Hereditary gelsolin amyloidosis is an autosomal dominantly inherited amyloid disorder. A point mutation in the GSN gene (G654A being the most common one) results in disturbed calcium binding by the second gelsolin domain (G2). As a result, the folding of G2 is hampered, rendering the mutant plasma gelsolin susceptible to a proteolytic cascade. Consecutive cleavage by furin and MT1-MMP-like proteases generates 8 and 5 kDa amyloidogenic peptides that cause neurological, ophthalmological and dermatological findings. To this day, no specific treatment is available to counter the pathogenesis. Using GSN nanobody 11 as a molecular chaperone, we aimed to protect mutant plasma gelsolin from furin proteolysis in the trans-Golgi network. We report a transgenic, GSN nanobody 11 secreting mouse that was used for crossbreeding with gelsolin amyloidosis mice. Insertion of the therapeutic nanobody gene into the gelsolin amyloidosis mouse genome resulted in improved muscle contractility. X-ray crystal structure determination of the gelsolin G2:Nb11 complex revealed that Nb11 does not directly block the furin cleavage site. We conclude that nanobodies can be used to shield substrates from aberrant proteolysis and this approach might establish a novel therapeutic strategy in amyloid diseases.

Structure of a stapled peptide antagonist bound to nutlin-resistant Mdm2.

As key negative regulator of the p53 tumour suppressor, Mdm2 is an attractive therapeutic target. Small molecules such as Nutlin have been developed to antagonise Mdm2, resulting in p53-dependent death of tumour cells. We have recently described a mutation in Mdm2 (M62A), which precludes binding of Nutlin, but not p53. This Nutlin-resistant variant is not, however, refractory to binding and inhibition by stapled peptide antagonists targeting the same region of Mdm2. A detailed understanding of how stapled peptides are recalcitrant to Mdm2 mutations conferring Nutlin-resistance will aid in the further development of potent Mdm2 antagonists. Here, we report the 2.00 Å crystal structure of a stapled peptide antagonist bound to Nutlin resistant Mdm2. The stapled peptide relies on an extended network of interactions along the hydrophobic binding cleft of Mdm2 for high affinity binding. Additionally, as seen in other stapled peptide structures, the hydrocarbon staple itself contributes to binding through favourable interactions with Mdm2. The structure highlights the intrinsic plasticity present in both Mdm2 and the hydrocarbon staple moiety, and can be used to guide future iterations of both small molecules and stapled peptides for improved antagonists of Mdm2.

Alternative splicing of glutathione S-transferases.

This chapter discusses the alternative splicing of glutathione S-transferase proteins, including current investigations of enzymatic, nonenzymatic functions, as well as structural differences between the alternatively spliced products. The data demonstrate that the different GST splice forms possess different properties, both in their catalytic function and in the effects of their protein-protein interactions.

Differences in the subunit interface residues of alternatively spliced glutathione transferases affects catalytic and structural functions.

GSTs (glutathione transferases) are multifunctional widespread enzymes. Currently there are 13 identified classes within this family. Previously most structural characterization has been reported for mammalian Alpha, Mu and Pi class GSTs. In the present study we characterize two enzymes from the insect-specific Delta class, adGSTD3-3 and adGSTD4-4. These two proteins are alternatively spliced products from the same gene and have very similar tertiary structures. Several major contributions to the dimer interface area can be separated into three regions: conserved electrostatic interactions in region 1, hydrophobic interactions in region 2 and an ionic network in region 3. The four amino acid side chains studied in region 1 interact with each other as a planar rectangle. These interactions are highly conserved among the GST classes, Delta, Sigma and Theta. The hydrophobic residues in region 2 are not only subunit interface residues but also active site residues. Overall these three regions provide important contributions to stabilization and folding of the protein. In addition, decreases in yield as well as catalytic activity changes, suggest that the mutations in these regions can disrupt the active site conformation which decreases binding affinity, alters kinetic constants and alters substrate specificity. Several of these residues have only a slight effect on the initial folding of each subunit but have more influence on the dimerization process as well as impacting upon appropriate active site conformation. The results also suggest that even splicing products from the same gene may have specific features in the subunit interface area that would preclude heterodimerization.

A sensitive core region in the structure of glutathione S-transferases.

A variant form of an Anopheles dirus glutathione S-transferase (GST), designated AdGSTD4-4, possesses a single amino acid change of leucine to arginine (Leu-103-Arg). Although residue 103 is outside of the active site, it has major effects on enzymic properties. To investigate these structural effects, site-directed mutagenesis was used to generate mutants by changing the non-polar leucine to alanine, glutamate, isoleucine, methionine, asparagine, or tyrosine. All of the recombinant GSTs showed approximately the same expression level at 25 degrees C. Several of the mutants lacked glutathione (GSH)-binding affinity but were purified by S-hexyl-GSH-based affinity chromatography. However the protein yields (70-fold lower), as well as the GST activity (100-fold lower), of Leu-103-Tyr and Leu-103-Arg purifications were surprisingly low and precluded the performance of kinetic experiments. Size-exclusion chromatography showed that both GSTs Leu-103-Tyr and Leu-103-Arg formed dimers. Using 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB) and GSH substrates to determine kinetic constants it was demonstrated that the other Leu-103 mutants possessed a greater K (m) towards GSH and a differing K (m) towards CDNB. The V (max) ranged from 44.7 to 87.0 micromol/min per mg (wild-type, 44.7 micromol/min per mg). Substrate-specificity studies showed different selectivity properties for each mutant. The structural residue Leu-103 affects the active site through H-bond and van-der-Waal contacts with six active-site residues in the GSH binding site. Changes in this interior core residue appear to disrupt internal packing, which affects active-site residues as well as residues at the subunit-subunit interface. Finally, the data suggest that Leu-103 is noteworthy as a sensitive residue in the GST structure that modulates enzyme activity as well as stability.

Plastin increases cortical connectivity to facilitate robust polarization and timely cytokinesis

The cell cortex is essential to maintain animal cell shape, and contractile forces generated within it by nonmuscle myosin II (NMY-2) drive cellular morphogenetic processes such as cytokinesis. The role of actin cross-linking proteins in cortical dynamics is still incompletely understood. Here, we show that the evolutionarily conserved actin bundling/cross-linking protein plastin is instrumental for the generation of potent cortical actomyosin contractility in the Caenorhabditis elegans zygote. PLST-1 was enriched in contractile structures and was required for effective coalescence of NMY-2 filaments into large contractile foci and for long-range coordinated contractility in the cortex. In the absence of PLST-1, polarization was compromised, cytokinesis was delayed or failed, and 50% of embryos died during development. Moreover, mathematical modeling showed that an optimal amount of bundling agents enhanced the ability of a network to contract. We propose that by increasing the connectivity of the F-actin meshwork, plastin enables the cortex to generate stronger and more coordinated forces to accomplish cellular morphogenesis.

Structural and Thermodynamic Insights into Chitooligosaccharide Binding to Human Cartilage Chitinase 3-like Protein 2 (CHI3L2 or YKL-39).

Background: Human YKL-39 is currently recognized as a biomarker for osteoarthritis. Results: Crystal structures of YKL-39 reveal that chitooligosaccharide induces local conformational changes to stabilize sugar·protein complexes and that the protein contains five binding subsites for sugars. Conclusion: YKL-39 binds to chitooligosaccharide through enthalpic reactions. Significance: Our findings suggest how YKL-39 interacts with GlcNAc moieties of the natural ligands, which may possibly activate local tissue inflammation. Four crystal structures of human YKL-39 were solved in the absence and presence of chitooligosaccharides. The structure of YKL-39 comprises a major (β/α)8 triose-phosphate isomerase barrel domain and a small α + β insertion domain. Structural analysis demonstrates that YKL-39 interacts with chitooligosaccharides through hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions. The binding of chitin fragments induces local conformational changes that facilitate tight binding. Compared with other GH-18 members, YKL-39 has the least extended chitin-binding cleft, containing five subsites for sugars, namely (−3)(−2)(−1)(+1)(+2), with Trp-360 playing a prominent role in the sugar-protein interactions at the center of the chitin-binding cleft. Evaluation of binding affinities obtained from isothermal titration calorimetry and intrinsic fluorescence spectroscopy suggests that YKL-39 binds to chitooligosaccharides with Kd values in the micromolar concentration range and that the binding energies increase with the chain length. There were no significant differences between the Kd values of chitopentaose and chitohexaose, supporting the structural evidence for the five binding subsite topology. Thermodynamic analysis indicates that binding of chitooligosaccharide to YKL-39 is mainly driven by enthalpy.