Jason V. Watters

Applying FecAl endocrine Monitoring to conservAtion And BehAvior studies oF Wild MAMMAls: iMportAnt considerAtions And preliMinAry tests

The desire to apply fecal steroid metabolite monitoring to key questions in conservation biology and behavioral ecology has steadily increased over the past decade. In particular, the measurement of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites, which reflect changes in an individuals adrenal activity, and are thus a measure of the stress response, has become a sought-after tool for conservation biologists and behaviorists alike. The noninvasive nature of this method facilitates longitudinal physiological monitoring concomitant with behavioral observations and other noninvasive ecological and biological data collection, providing an increased level of insight and complexity that was previously impossible to obtain. While the method has huge potential, some doubt is beginning to emerge regarding its general applicability to field studies. This doubt may largely result from some misconceptions and lack of knowledge about the method itself. The perceived simplicity of this methodology has led some to believe that it is ...

Value of captive populations for quantitative genetics research.

Evolutionary biologists have usefully applied quantitative genetics methods to the pedigrees of wild animals to understand how natural selection shapes phenotypic diversity in nature. Despite recent reviews on the importance of rapid evolutionary changes for conservation biology and the increasing concerns about potentially adverse effects of adaptation to captivity for wild species, the integration of evolutionary-based knowledge into conservation programs remains elusive. Here we review the value of long-term pedigrees and associated phenotypic data of captive stocks for evolutionary research and conservation programs. We emphasize that using zoological records to assess quantitative genetics parameters represents a promising avenue to study adaptation to captivity.

Behavioral monitoring in zoos and aquariums: a tool for guiding husbandry and directing research.

Behavioral monitoring is the scientific collection of animal behavior data to understand normal patterns of behavior and changes in these patterns. This tool is underutilized in the zoo industry although it can be an effective indicator of many potential problems that compromise zoo animal well-being. We suggest that a behavioral monitoring program should be a core component of a zoological institutions care program. We detail the benefits of such a program and describe its components. We provide guidelines for implementing such a program and make recommendations that will help institutions to employ behavioral monitoring programs with reasonable expense. We argue that the benefits of such a program, primarily increased detection of rising or potential problems, far outweigh the minor costs of implementation.

Toward a Predictive Theory for Environmental Enrichment

There have been many applications of and successes with environmental enrichment for captive animals. The theoretical spine upon which much enrichment work hangs largely describes why enrichment should work. Yet, there remains no clear understanding of how enrichment should be applied to achieve the most beneficial results. This lack of understanding may stem in part from the assumptions that underlie the application of enrichment by practitioners. These assumptions are derived from an understanding that giving animals choice and control in their environment stimulates their motivation to perform behaviors that may indicate a heightened state of well-being. Learning theory provides a means to question the manner in which these constructs are routinely applied, and converting learning theorys findings to optimality predictions suggests a particularly vexing paradox-that motivation to perform appears to be maintained best when acquiring a payoff for expressing the behavior is uncertain. This effect occurs even when the actual value of the payoff is the same for all schedules of certainty of payoff acquisition. The paradox can be resolved by invoking rewards of an alternative type, such as cognitive rewards, or through an understanding of how the average payoff changes with changes in the probability of reward. This model, with measures of the average change of the payoff, suggests testable scenarios by which practitioners can measure the quality of environmental uncertainty in enrichment programs.

Introduction to the special issue on zoo animal welfare.

In May 2008, the Chicago Zoological Societys Center for the Science of Animal Welfare (CSAW) held a two-day international workshop designed to establish and foster new connections between zoo animal welfare scientists and welfare scientists in other fields, and to take the first step toward the development of a research agenda for zoo animal welfare science. Such a research agenda by its very nature would need to be highly multi-disciplinary and collaborative. In support of this purpose this article serves as an introduction for a collection of invited papers presented at the workshop. Workshop themes included the investigation of welfare metrics currently used and in development, elucidating gaps and determining needs for zoo welfare research, and gaining a deeper understanding of the value that understanding animals in the wild can bring to zoo animal welfare. Here we discuss some of the most relevant points made at the workshop and describe the seven most salient research needs that were suggested in consensus.

A Multi-Institutional Assessment of Factors Influencing Locomotion and Pacing in Captive Okapis (Okapia johnstoni)

The okapi (Okapia johnstoni), native to the Democratic Republic of Congo, is a large, solitary, and diurnal forest-dwelling ungulate highly sensitive to captive conditions. The captive population demonstrates persistent health problems, reproductive abnormalities, and several potentially abnormal repetitive behaviors. This study reports on locomotion and pacing in adult male and female okapis. Commonly, data on repetitive behavior have been derived from surveys. Although insightful, the results are often highly generalized and provide little information about the true preponderance and nature of such behavior in a population. In this study, direct observations determining how often and when a behavior of interest occurs are paired with information on factors (intrinsic and extrinsic) that can impact a nonhuman animals propensity to perform repetitive behavior. More than half of the North American okapi population comprised the study population. Each animal was studied for 2 summer and winter seasons. Factors predictive of pacing in both males and females included 3 housing and habitat factors and 4 management factors. Patterns of locomotion and the rate and pattern of pacing in males when compared with females suggested different mechanisms may be driving these behaviors in the different sexes and that a sex-specific management strategy would benefit this species.

The Effects of Sex, Climate, and Management on Normal and Repetitive Behaviors in Okapis (Okapi johnstoni)

S OF THE PROCEEDINGS 383 over 48 months. The outcome variables were key behaviors relevant to welfare assessment in apes: agonism, sexual behavior, abnormal behavior, intraspecific prosocial behavior, self-directed behavior, and wounding. Chimpanzees showed significantly more agonism (F D 8.321, p D .018) and less prosocial behavior (F D 17.867, p D .002) in observational sessions that included at least 1 interaction with caretakers. There was also a nonsignificant trend for chimpanzees to exhibit more wounding events in these samples ( 2 D 3.329, p D .068). These results are generally undesirable from a welfare perspective. Gorillas showed significantly less self-directed behavior (F D 31.870, p < .001) and more agonism (F D 9.0, p < .001) in samples that included interactions with caretakers, which is challenging to interpret because self-directed behavior is commonly used as a proxy for social anxiety in primates. These findings emphasize the importance of taking all forms of human-animal interaction into consideration when conducting welfare assessments for captive animal facilities. Correspondence should be sent to Gita I. Chelluri, Lester E. Fisher Center for the Study and Conservation of Apes, Lincoln Park Zoo, 2001 North Clark Street, Chicago, IL 60614. Email: gic5@

Phenotype Management: An Inclusive Framework for Supporting Individuals’ Contributions to Conservation Populations

There are generally two types of animal populations managed for conservation purposes, in situ and ex situ. The management goals for each type of population differ and this drives the manner by which the populations experience selection. Population members of different behavioral types may respond to the same stimuli in varying ways, generating potentially supportive effects for achieving conservation goals. The cumulative impact of observable phenotypic or behavioral variation predicts the potential of meeting population goals. Phenotype management is a conservation strategy that employs understanding of the varied outcomes for individuals in developing the potential for successful conservation populations. To employ phenotype management, it is useful to consider the environmental factors that drive the expression of varied behavioral types and life history trajectories. Diversity of habitat and developmental circumstance may be crucial to generating phenotypically diverse populations. Ex situ populations may be spread across numerous locations as meta-populations and members of these populations may experience a diversity of husbandry protocols, social groupings, and climates—resulting in population level behavioral diversity. A focus on habitat heterogeneity and in situ habitat restoration may support phenotypic diversity in populations of concern.

Editorial Note: On optimism and pessimism in conservation science and messaging

The paper that follows “Rewinding the process of mammalian extinction” by Saragusty and co-workers is focused on three individual animals. Aside from the inanimate reality of stories, photos, and artifacts, these three living animals are all that remains of theNorthernWhiteRhinoceros. Unable to reproduce, this is the sunset of a unique subspecies. These three animals are a public display of extinction. But this is not a sad paper. The paper is also about hope. It is written with an optimistic perspective that is deliriously refreshing.Against probably insurmountable odds these authors suggest that theremaybe somepossibility toundo this imminent extinction. They also suggest that by at least trying the efforts they describe, there will be significant positive outcomes for numerous other endangered species and for science itself. In doing so, this integrative team of researchers serve as role models for positive attitude in conservation biology. Optimism, though sometimes hard to come by, is important for conservation biology. Unchecked pessimism is a pitfall. Optimism feels good. Pessimism feels like depression. Optimism promotes creativity, novel problem solving and perhaps most importantly, more optimism. It supports the psychological well-being of our conservation scientists. We certainly do not want a cadre of depressed conservation scientists believing that they cannot make a difference. This would result in disingenuous conservation science. Similarly, when it comes to our outward messaging, we do not want to shame or guilt a public capable of making small and large scale behavior changes, the cumulative effects of which can result in significant positive conservation outcomes. If our messaging is pessimistic, we will drive negative opinion. Optimism works in ways that negative messaging simply cannot. Ask yourself – if you are told that you need to act before a certain species is gone from the planet – don’t you already think that species’ extinction is imminent? If you are told one of your behaviors is driving the species from the planet – do you keep listening? Do you feel you canmake a difference or does the situation feel hopeless? Alternatively – if you are told that your simple behavior can help a species – do you think that speciesmight persist?What if that behavior is one you already do – do you feel like you can make a difference? How does that feel? Of course, it can be difficult to remain optimistic and perhaps being overly optimistic has its own pitfall or two. Nevertheless, it is my belief that in staying positive and in demonstrating our successes – no matter how small or infrequent – we will indeed be successful. I know that there are numerous brilliant developing minds that aspire to a career in conservation science. And I am fairly certain that this next generation and the next will look for role models who believe in what they are doing. Perhaps the Northern White Rhinoceros will go extinct – but the paper that follows suggests that it might not have to remain so.