Jay Rothman

From Interests to Identities: Towards a New Emphasis in Interactive Conflict Resolution

This article explores the methods by which practitioners have traditionally approached international conflicts. Approaches focusing on the resources or the interests of the parties can be appropriate methods of resolution in conflicts where resources and interests are the only issues at stake. However, conflicts raging today often contain issues of identity. These identity-based, ethnopolitical conflicts are often resistant to traditional resource- and interest-based resolution methods. This article suggests a different approach, one that emphasizes needs, and in particular identities, of conflicting parties. We suggest that such a focus is essential in working towards resolution in many of the deeply rooted conflicts in todays world. We explore the ARIA model of conflict engagement as a mechanism for a systematic approach to interactive conflict resolution that specifically deals with the complex issues of identity. We also offer a preliminary evaluation of interactive conflict resolution as a general approach in varied international conflict situations. The question of interactive conflict resolution effectiveness is explored using Lickliders data for civil war termination and Bercovitchs data for international conflict mediation.

The Power of Why Engaging the Goal Paradox in Program Evaluation

Clearly defined and measurable goals are commonly considered prerequisites for effective evaluation. Goal setting, however, presents a paradox to evaluators because it takes place at the interface of rationality and values. The objective of this article is to demonstrate a method for unlocking this paradox by making goal setting a process of evaluating goals, not simply defining them. Goals can be evaluated by asking program stakeholders why their goals are important to them. Systematic inquiry into goals also prepares the ground for setting consensual goals that express what stakeholders really care about. This article describes the method, provides a case illustration, offers guidelines for practice, and discusses the method in the context of the evaluation literature on goals and goal setting.

Action Evaluation and Conflict Resolution Training: Theory, Method and Case Study

Current efforts to develop an “appropriate technology” for evaluating conflict resolution methods, including conflict resolution training, are described. There is a need in conflict resolution for research and evaluation methods which are contextually sensitive to the setting, participants, content, and process of specific initiatives. This need parallels the idea of appropriate technology in third world development efforts, in which sensitivity to context and a great deal of local participation is sought to ensure that outside aid is truly wanted and helpful. Appropriate means of evaluating conflict resolution are still lacking; new methodologies consistent with, and even constitutive of, normative conflict resolution goals and values are required. The article describes and illustrates a process designed to bridge conflict resolution and evaluation, which is labeled “action-evaluation.”

From Identity-Based Conflict to Identity-Based Cooperation

Conflict and Identity.- ARIA Contingency Model.- To Thine Own Self Be True -The Solo.- I and Thou- Duets.- Conducting (a): Intragroup Conflict.-Conducting (b): Intergroup negotiation and consensus building.- Sustaining the Change.- Experimenting with ARIA globally.- Engaging Identities in Conflict: Some Methodological Insights and Dilemmas.- Conflict and Visioning in Urban Violence and Peacemaking.- Converting Antagonism in to Resonance - Research and Training.- Viewing Identity Conflict through the Lens of Developmental Psychology.- Building Local Capacity in Identity-Based Conflict.- Spiritual Roots of the Four Worlds, and Healing the Enlightenment Rift for Conflict Transformation.- Applications and new directions of Creative Identity-Based Conflict Engagement.

Issues of Theory and Practice in Ethnic Conflict Management

Many people believe that ethnic conflict is potentially the most destabilizing force in the post cold-war world (Huntington, 1993). Consequently there is widespread interest in efforts to settle ethnically based disputes or at least to manage them in ways which limit their destructive effects. As a result governments are now considering options ranging from the development of early warning systems, preventative diplomacy, training special negotiation and mediation teams, and the development of multinational rapid reactions teams to intervene in ethnic conflicts which escalate out of control.

Conflict Research and Resolution: Cyprus

As the Cold War recedes and Europe moves into a new union, protracted ethnic conflicts raging around the world pose a major challenge to forging a more peaceful world order in the waning years of the twentieth century. The serious and fresh attention given to these conflicts may also provide valuable conceptual and practical tools for conflict management. This article describes a methodology used for conflict resolution training and intervention in the context of protracted ethnic conflicts, and its application to the Cyprus conflict as a vehicle for research. The methodology suggests that it may be fruitful if parties in conflict, or examinations of conflict, were able to systematically develop a variety of different ways of analyzing the conflict and posing solutions to it. Three different lenses for conflict analysis and management are suggested: adversarial, reflexive, and integrative.

Action Evaluation in Theory and Practice

This section of the book beginning with this chapter, growing quite literally out of the work presented in the first half, is about how to “help good people do good work together better.” Moreover, it’s also about ensuring that good work of good people is sustainable. While as the previous chapters have illustrated ARIA Conflict Engagement work has been quite successful around the world in helping disputants locked in deep identity-based conflict surface differences (Antagonism), take each other’s perspectives (Resonance) and invent creative ways forward (Invention), it has been less successful in helping them sustain and implement this work (Action). Action Evaluation evolved as a way to systematically define, promote and assess success in order to “increase the odds” that good work would be sustained.

The Power of Why

The question “Why?” – though often avoided by mediators and facilitators – is a powerful tool for unlocking the door between antagonism and resonance when skillfully applied to program planning and conflict engagement. Appropriate use of the question “Why?” engages participants in making core values explicit to themselves and others. It is a key to the successful application of Rothman’s (1997) ARIA process. A variety of successful practical applications are reported, ranging from program planning sessions to large, computer-based cross-community conflict engagements. The article builds upon the authors’ own experience and research in dialogue to present a practical, step-by-step guide, including a checklist and “do’s and don’ts’ for facilitating the “Why Dialogue” in identity-based conflict and cooperation scenarios.

Articulating Goals and Monitoring Progress in a Cyprus Conflict Resolution Training Workshop

The conflict on Cyprus between Greek and Turkish Cypriots shares a number of important characteristics with other intransigent ethnic conflicts. First of all it is both a domestic conflict, splitting the inhabitants of the island, and an international one drawing in its larger neighbours Greece and Turkey both members of NATO and the United Nations which has a large peacekeeping force stationed in Cyprus and maintains the division of the island into the Turks in the north and the Greeks in the south. Since 1973 there has been little contact between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and little movement towards the development of a political solution which both can accept. Some argue, in fact, that the presence of the UN troops and the not-so-hurting stalemate provide little incentive for the two sides to make peace. Seeming to fear that this is the case, the UN regularly threatens to withdraw its troops unless progress towards peace is made. Indeed, several years ago the Canadian contingent which up to then had been the largest one is the UN force was significantly reduced for just this reason.

Intrapersonal and Interpersonal ARIA Process

In this chapter, the theory and application of the ARIA conflict engagement is further explored through an interpersonal mediation involving two people who differ along race and gender lines. We illustrate this process through the metaphor of music and highlight the role of mediator as conductor. Examples of both solo and duet work are explored as part of the conflict engagement process.