Victor J. Friedman

A Multifacet Model of Organizational Learning

The objective of this article is to map the manyfacets of organizational learning into an integrative and parsimonious conceptual framework that can help researchers and practicioners identify, study, and introduce organizational learning to organizations. The article addresses the gap between theoryand practice of organizational learning byproviding a working definition of “productive organizational learning” and then describing the conditions under which organizations are likelyto learn. The model presented draws on scholarly organizational learning literature, practicioner accounts, and our own experiences as researchers and practitioners. It argues that learning by organization, as distinct from learning in organizations, requires the existence of organizational learning mechanisms. These mechanisms, which represent the “structural facet, ” are necessarybut not sufficient for generating productive organizational learning. The qualityof organizational learning depends on additional facets of organizational learning (cultural, psychological, policy, and contextual), which facilitate or inhibit learning and are also explored in this article.

Negotiating Reality A Theory of Action Approach to Intercultural Competence

In an increasingly global business environment, managers must interact effectively with culturally complex people in culturally complex situations. The dominant stream of thought in international management literature frames this situation as a problem of conflict and offers generalized models of cultural difference as guides to ‘adaptation’ for avoiding conflict. This article offers an alternative approach to intercultural competence, ‘negotiating reality’, that engages cultural conflict as a resource for learning. Negotiating reality draws on concepts from action science and identity-based conflict to take a new look at the meaning of competence in intercultural interactions. This article analyses and critiques the approach to culture implicit in the dominant international management literature and the adaptation model. It then describes negotiating reality and the kinds of thinking and behaviour that must be adopted in order to put this approach to intercultural competence into practice.

The Mystification of Organizational Learning

Despite the growing popularity of organizational learning and the proliferation of literature on the subject, the concept remains elusive for researchers and managers alike. This article argues that enduring uncertainty about the meaning and practice of organizational learning reflects its so-called mystification. It attributes mystification to five features of the field: (a) ever-increasing conceptual diversity, (b) anthropomorphizing organizational learning, (c) a split in the field between visionaries and skeptics, (d) the reification of terminology, and (e) active mystification of the concept. The article explains and illustrates how the literature on organizational learning has contributed to these processes of mystification. It concludes by specifying a number of strategies that researchers and practitioners can employ to demystify the concept of organizational learning.

The paradox of participation in action research

Although participation is widely discussed in the action research literature, relatively few studies deal with building the participative relationship itself. This article attempts to fill that gap through a ‘first-person action research’ involving a relationship between Jewish researchers and a Palestinian Arab non-governmental organization in Israel that failed to live up to our espoused values of participation. It employs an action science method for joint critical reflecting on this relationship and analyzing the data from the reflection. It presents two ‘theories of action’: one aimed at explaining the paradox of participation and one for dealing with it more effectively. By opening our learning, including our errors, to the scrutiny of other action researchers, we hope to generate actionable knowledge that can contribute to building genuinely participative relationships in action research.

Learning to negotiate reality: a strategy for teaching intercultural competencies

Intercultural competencies are more important for people in business than ever before. In this article, the authors present an approach they designed and used for developing “negotiating reality” as a key intercultural competence at an international business school in Europe. They outline the theoretical underpinnings from intercultural communication and action learning, on which their approach is based. Then, they describe the iterative process through which they guide students in group work, starting by analyzing a difficult intercultural situation they experienced and leading to role-plays in which they experiment with alternative responses. The teaching materials are in the text and appendices.

Integrating social entrepreneurship and conflict engagement for regional development in divided societies

This paper argues that, in divided societies, social entrepreneurship can be an effective strategy for regional development if it is integrated with conflict engagement. It views both social entrepreneurship and conflict engagement through a social constructionist lens and employs theory building methods from action research and programme theory evaluation. The argument is presented in the form of a ‘programme theory of action’, called the ‘Studio for Social Creativity’ that provides the conceptual and practical basis for promoting development in Israels northern periphery, a region characterized by socio-economic stagnation as well as deep social divisions, especially between Jewish and Arab Palestinian inhabitants. The programme theory of action includes a description of the context, the problem framing, underlying assumptions, action strategies and intended outcomes. It hypothesizes that integrating social entrepreneurship and conflict engagement impacts regional development by redefining inter-group relationships, enhancing social networks, activating social capital, leveraging diversity and challenging existing power structures.

Designed Blindness: An Action Science Perspective on Program Theory Evaluation

This article is intended to stimulate a dialogue between program theory evaluation and action science for the purposes of cross-fertilization and mutual enrichment. Both program theory evaluation and action science use the concept of implicit “theories of action” as a central construct in the study of social practice. However, an action science approach suggests a wider understanding of program theory that (1) specifies the links between individual reasoning and behavior to program implementation, and (2) accounts for how programs deal with dilemmas, conflict, and error. This paper begins with a systematic, though not exhaustive, comparison of program theory evaluation and action science. It analyzes an exemplar of program theory evaluation from an action science perspective to illustrate a subtheory, “designed blindness,” and its impact on both program implementation and the evaluation itself. It then offers a theory for overcoming designed blindness. Finally, this article argues that action science concepts and skills can enable program theory evaluators to be more effective in confronting defensiveness and in facilitating learning among stakeholders when there is a gap between “espoused” program theory and “theory-in-use.”

The Power of Why Engaging the Goal Paradox in Program Evaluation

Clearly defined and measurable goals are commonly considered prerequisites for effective evaluation. Goal setting, however, presents a paradox to evaluators because it takes place at the interface of rationality and values. The objective of this article is to demonstrate a method for unlocking this paradox by making goal setting a process of evaluating goals, not simply defining them. Goals can be evaluated by asking program stakeholders why their goals are important to them. Systematic inquiry into goals also prepares the ground for setting consensual goals that express what stakeholders really care about. This article describes the method, provides a case illustration, offers guidelines for practice, and discusses the method in the context of the evaluation literature on goals and goal setting.

Towards a Theory of Inclusive Practice An Action Science Approach

This article demonstrates how action research can fill a theoretical gap in the literature on ‘social exclusion’. Although the literature points to the centrality of ‘relationships’ in overcoming exclusion, it offers little theory on the nature of these relationships and how they are formed. This article presents ‘actionable knowledge’ for creating interpersonal relationships that interrupt processes of exclusion. It draws on the findings of an ‘action science’ inquiry process carried out by the staff of an intervention program that helps schools work more effectively with students characterized by chronic failure. The article describes how the concept of ‘social exclusion’ entered the discourse of the inquiry and helped practitioners frame their practice problem and intervention strategy. It then analyzes the program’s specific ‘theory of action’ for forming inclusive relationships. Finally it addresses the validity and the generalizability of action science research aimed at developing a theory of inclusive practice.

Schools as Agents of Social Exclusion and Inclusion.

Although schools are usually regarded as important agents for social inclusion, research has shown that they may also function as agents of exclusion itself. The goal of this paper is to deepen our understanding of how schools function as agents of exclusion and how they can become more effective agents of inclusion. It is based on action research carried out with the ‘New Education Environment’, a programme aimed at helping secondary schools in Israel work more effectively with ‘at-risk’ pupils. This research led to the discovery of a self-reinforcing ‘cycle of exclusion’ that involves both pupils and staff in these schools and ‘frames’ of thinking and action that keep it in place. This paper also describes the cycle of exclusion and its frames as well as an alternative frame that has been used to help school staff to step out of the cycle of exclusion and act more effectively to foster inclusion.