Jean McKendree

Effective feedback content for tutoring complex skills

Feedback during learning is critical for evaluating new skills. Computer-based tutoring systems have the potential to detect errors and to guide students by providing informative feedback, but few studies have evaluated the real impact of different types of feedback. This article presents results of such a study using the Geometry Tutor for building geometry proofs. It was found that feedback about the goal structure of geometry problems led to better performance than feedback about the reasons for error or than simply being told that an error had occurred. This goal feedback allows students to correct the incorrect action more often than other types of feedback. Also, the goal feedback group continued to deal advantageously with problems when the feedback was subsequently removed. A simulation model, based on Andersons (1983) ACT* theory and an analogical learning system, presents a preliminary model of the effects of these different feedback types. The model indicates that the advantage of goal-directed feedback is a reflection of its immediate application to the problem, whereas feedback about reasons for the error does not provide any direction to the correct error. According to the model, the feedback allows the student to construct a correct representation of the goal tree involved in various types of proofs more readily than feedback that is not immediately relevant to the current problem.

Why observing a dialogue may benefit learning

The Vicarious Learner project is investigating the fundamental role of dialogue for learning. More specifically, the project is exploring the benefits to learners of being able to observe others participating in discussion. Such opportunities are becoming fewer with the proliferation of computer-based courses and distance learning, as well as growing student numbers. This paper presents the theoretical aspects of the work. A high-level ‘process model’ of learning is presented and then a more detailed model of what happens in educational dialogues. This ‘logic model’ of dialogue breaks discussions into two parts: the introduction of new premises and the derivation of new premises by the application of rules of reasoning in the domain. It is argued that in ordinary conversation the first aspect dominates while in educational dialogues, many misunderstandings arise from the need for more emphasis on explicit demonstration of use of rules.

Emotional intelligence and perceived stress in healthcare students: a multi-institutional, multi-professional survey

BackgroundEmotional intelligence (EI) is increasingly discussed as having a potential role in medicine, nursing, and other healthcare disciplines, both for personal mental health and professional practice. Stress has been identified as being high for students in healthcare courses. This study investigated whether EI and stress differed among students in four health professions (dental, nursing, graduate mental health workers, medical) and whether there was evidence that EI might serve as a buffer for stress.MethodThe Schutte Emotional Intelligence and the Perceived Stress scale instruments were administered to four groups of healthcare students in their first year of study in both the autumn and summer terms of the 2005-6 academic year. The groups were undergraduate dental, nursing and medical students, and postgraduate mental health workers.ResultsNo significant differences were found between males and females nor among professional groups for the EI measure. Dental students reported significantly higher stress than medical students. EI was found to be only moderately stable in test-retest scores. Some evidence was found for EI as a possible factor in mediating stress. Students in different health profession courses did not show significant differences in Emotional Intelligence.ConclusionWhile stress and EI showed a moderate relationship, results of this study do not allow the direction of relationship to be determined. The limitations and further research questions raised in this study are discussed along with the need for refinement of the EI construct and measures, particularly if Emotional Intelligence were to be considered as a possible selection criterion, as has been suggested by some authors.

Vicarious learning from dialogue and discourse: A controlled comparison.

This study examined learning in the domain of sentence parsing and syntax tree-diagram construction. The aim of the study was to assess whether subjects could learn ‘vicariously’ from recordings of interactions between a previous student and a tutor.Four intervention conditions and a control condition were compared. Subjects in a ‘dialogue’ group (DL) read printed tutorial notes and subsequently ‘vicariously’ viewed dynamic (animated) recordings of tree diagrams being constructed by a previous student in the presence of a tutor.The discourse (DI) condition was similar except that subjects viewed recordings of tree diagrams being constructed by a tutor who concurrently verbalised instructional discourse.In a third condition (DO), subjects viewed tree-diagram construction animation clips which were not annotated with either dialogue or discourse. In a linear text (LT) condition, subjects were given only printed tutorial notes. A control (CO) condition involved pre and post testing without any intervention.Results indicated that the dialogue condition was as effective as the discourse condition. This provides support for contention that ‘re-usable’ dialogue is a useful resource for the vicarious learner. Another finding was that un-annotated animated diagrams were surprisingly effective. Several reasons for their effectiveness are suggested from the literature on instructional animations.

The Role of Representation in Teaching and Learning Critical Thinking

Curriculum design in recent years reflects the growing belief in the importance of developing thinking skills. In this paper, we focus on a particular theoretical approach to the study and teaching of thinking: cognitive science. We first give a very brief review of the recent research on critical thinking. We then concentrate on what cognitive science can add by looking at models of how people learn and how they transfer what they learn from one context to another. The main concept we focus on is representation and the crucial aspects of systems of representation and the meaningful transformation of information. We present examples of how representations can support, or hinder, problem solving and communication. We also discuss the social aspects of representation, the challenges of language use, and the paradoxes thrown up by attempting to guide students to be more critical thinkers.

Vicarious Learning from Dialogue and Discourse.

This study examined learning in the domain of sentence parsing and syntax treediagram construction. The aim of the study was to assess whether subjects could learn ‘vicariously’ from recordings of interactions between a previous student and a tutor.Four intervention conditions and a control condition were compared. Subjects in a ‘dialogue’ group (DL) read printed tutorial notes and subsequently ‘vicariously” viewed dynamic (animated) recordings of tree diagrams being constructed by a previous student in the presence of a tutor.The discourse (DI) condition was similar except that subjects viewed recordings of tree diagrams being constructed by a tutor who concurrently verbalised instructional discourse.In a third condition (DO), subjects viewed tree-diagram construction animation clips which were not annotated with either dialogue or discourse. In a linear text (LT) condition, subjects were given only printed tutorial notes. A control (CO) condition involved pre and post testing without any intervention.Results indicated that the dialogue condition was as effective as the discourse condition. This provides support for contention that ‘re-usable’ dialogue is a useful resource for the vicarious learner. Another finding was that un-annotated animated diagrams were surprisingly effective. Several reasons for their effectiveness are suggested from the literature on instructional animations.

Supporting Student Discussions: it isn‘t Just Talk

The role of dialogue in learning is considered with respect to the use of educational technology. The Vicarious Learner project aims to create a re-usable resource base of learning dialogues from which later learners can benefit. This depends on effective dialogues arising within computer-based media, so that they can be captured. The conditions for effective dialogue are dependent not only on the technology, but on structures and conventions surrounding its use. Two studies are described, from which it emerges that new structures are needed. A notion of Task Directed Discussions (TDDs) is developed, through which effective dialogues are explicitly encouraged. A theoretical framework for the re-use of such dialogues is described.

Can personal qualities of medical students predict in-course examination success and professional behaviour? An exploratory prospective cohort study

BackgroundOver two-thirds of UK medical schools are augmenting their selection procedures for medical students by using the United Kingdom Clinical Aptitude Test (UKCAT), which employs tests of cognitive and non-cognitive personal qualities, but clear evidence of the tests’ predictive validity is lacking. This study explores whether academic performance and professional behaviours that are important in a health professional context can be predicted by these measures, when taken before or very early in the medical course.MethodsThis prospective cohort study follows the progress of the entire student cohort who entered Hull York Medical School in September 2007, having taken the UKCAT cognitive tests in 2006 and the non-cognitive tests a year later. This paper reports on the students’ first and second academic years of study. The main outcome measures were regular, repeated tutor assessment of individual students’ interpersonal skills and professional behaviour, and annual examination performance in the three domains of recall and application of knowledge, evaluation of data, and communication and practical clinical skills. The relationships between non-cognitive test scores, cognitive test scores, tutor assessments and examination results were explored using the Pearson product–moment correlations for each group of data; the data for students obtaining the top and bottom 20% of the summative examination results were compared using Analysis of Variance.ResultsPersonal qualities measured by non-cognitive tests showed a number of statistically significant relationships with ratings of behaviour made by tutors, with performance in each year’s objective structured clinical examinations (OSCEs), and with themed written summative examination marks in each year. Cognitive ability scores were also significantly related to each year’s examination results, but seldom to professional behaviours. The top 20% of examination achievers could be differentiated from the bottom 20% on both non-cognitive and cognitive measures.ConclusionsThis study shows numerous significant relationships between both cognitive and non-cognitive test scores, academic examination scores and indicators of professional behaviours in medical students. This suggests that measurement of non-cognitive personal qualities in applicants to medical school could make a useful contribution to selection and admission decisions. Further research is required in larger representative groups, and with more refined predictor measures and behavioural assessment methods, to establish beyond doubt the incremental validity of such measures over conventional cognitive assessments.

Lessons from medical students’ perceptions of learning reflective skills: A multi-institutional study

Background: A core competency during undergraduate medical training is the development of reflective learning. The current literature is limited to demonstrating how reflective learning has been implemented or the approaches to its development. There is a lack of insight into students’ perceptions of reflection and the factors that support development of reflective practice. Bridging this gap may provide insight into how reflective learning within the curriculum can be better developed to increase engagement from learners. Methods: Eight focus group interviews with second year students from four UK medical schools were held. Results were thematically analysed. Key findings: Students have a high level of understanding of the purpose of reflection in practice but they perceive that there is a tension between public and private reflections. Assessment of the reflective process was perceived to be useful for developing reflective skills but grading of their reflective writing was not considered to be useful. Staff who champion the development of reflective skills and mentor students were perceived to play key roles in aiding the development of reflective skills. Appropriate experiences were seen to be a key part of developing reflective skills. Conclusion: These findings highlight potential ways to revise and improve engagement with the reflective learning components of undergraduate courses.

Patient-centred learning—back to the future

Background: Historically, medical students learned the art and science of medicine from the patients they encountered. While students were highly motivated to learn through this approach, the serendipitous nature of real practice and the variability in the skills of their teachers proved to be liabilities for learning. This apprenticeship-style education was replaced by a more formal didactic curriculum during the twentieth century. Description: The power of computer technology enables medical educators to recapture the authenticity of patient-centred learning (PCL) through the creation of a virtual practice populated by a panel of virtual patients. In contrast to traditional problem-based learning cases, PCL virtual patients return for multiple visits with their student-doctors, demonstrating how diseases change over time, interact with other diseases and risk factors, and are influenced by psychosocial factors. Conclusions: New approaches to pedagogy embodied in patient-centred learning allow the curriculum to be organized around the patients, both real and simulated.