Nick Hammond

Argumentation-based design rationale

A design rationale (DR) is a representation of the reasoning behind the design of an artifact. In recent years, the use of semiformal notations for structuring arguments about design decisions has attracted much interest within the human-computer interaction and software engineering communities, leading to a number of DR notations and support environments. This paper examines two foundational claims made by argumentation-based DR approaches: that expressing DR as argumentation is useful, and that designers can use such notations. The conceptual and empirical basis for these claims is examined, firstly by surveying relevant literature on the use of argumentation in non-design contexts (from which current DR efforts draw much inspiration), and secondly, by surveying DR work. Evidence is classified according to the research contribution it makes, the kind of data on which claims are based (anecdotal or experimental), the extent to which the claims made are substantiated, and whether or not the users of the approach were also the researchers.In the survey, a trend towards tightly integrating DR with other design representations is noted, but it is argued that taken too far, this may result in the loss of the original vision of argumentative design. In examining the evidence for each claim, it is demonstrated firstly, that research into semiformal argumentation outside the design context has failed to substantiate convincingly either of the two claims implicitly attributed to it in current DR research, and secondly, that there are also significant gaps in the DR literature. There are emerging indications, however, that argumentation-based DR can assist certain kinds of design reasoning by turning the representational effort to the designers advantage, and that such DRs can be useful at a later date. This analysis of argumentation research sets an agenda for future work driven by a concern to support the designer in the whole process of externalizing and structuring DR, from initially ill-formed ideas to more rigorous, coherent argumentation. The paper concludes by clarifying implications for the design of DR training, notations, and tools.

Graphical argumentation and design cognition

Many efforts have been made to exploit the properties of graphical notations to support argument construction and communication. In the context of design rationale capture, we are interested in graphical argumentation structures as cognitive tools to support individual and collaborative design in real time. This context of use requires a detailed understanding of how a new representational structure integrates into the cognitive and discursive flow of design, that is, whether it provides supportive or intrusive structure. This article presents a use-oriented analysis of a graphical argumentation notation known as QOC (Questions, Options, and Criteria). Through a series of empirical studies, we show that it provides most support when elaborating poorly understood design spaces, but is a distraction when evaluating well-constrained design spaces. This is explained in terms of the cognitive compatibility between argumentative reasoning and the demands of different modes of designing. We then provide an account based on the collaborative affordances of QOC in group design meetings, and extend this to discuss the evolution of QOC argumentation from short term working memory to long term group memory.

Computer-based tools to support learning from hypertext: concept mapping tools and beyond

Abstract Although hypertext can be a useful way of delivering learning materials it is problematic in that there is no requirement to actively manipulate knowledge as part of the interaction. The mindtools, or concept mapping, approach requires learners to construct graphical representations of the information that they cover forcing them to engage more actively in the information as a consequence. Advocates of concept mapping argue that by encouraging learners to represent their knowledge using a node-link formalism, learners are forced into activities that aid the organization and integration of knowledge, and that the map itself can serve to communicate the learners knowledge more effectively than text. This paper reports the results of a study designed to test the effectiveness of a concept mapping tool in aiding student learning from a hypertext system. It was found that use of the concept mapping tool enhanced the scores on a post-test when compared to standard note taking. Qualitative analyses of the process of network construction, and of the maps produced argue that there may be a case for offering learners more support in the networks that they construct, to explicitly encourage structuring activities and it is hoped integration, and more encouragement to revise networks so to enhance their use in communication.

Design practice and interface usability: Evidence from interviews with designers

Research into human-computer interaction (HCI) is mainly conducted by engineering psychologists, cognitive psychologists and computer scientists. The principal consumers of applied HCI research, on the other hand, are human factors practitioners and system designers and developers. The HCI researcher who believes his or her findings to be of practical relevance has therefore to consider the interface between researcher and practitioner as well as that between system and user: the products of HCI research must not only be relevant but also “user-friendly” to the practitioner. This problem is not merely one of communication between different professional communities, as the optimal route for the translation of research findings into terms that will be of practical use in the design process is itself a matter of considerable uncertainty and debate. Thus there are many instances in the research literature where apparently contradictory recommendations can all too easily be drawn from findings based on sound but, by its very nature, limited experimentation (e.g., compare the findings of Landauer et al., in press, Ledgard et al., 1980, and Scapin, 1981, on naming text-editing operations). One of the prerequisites for tackling both the communication problem and the translation problem is an understanding of relevant aspects of decision-making in design which influence the usability of the end-user interface. This is so for three reasons. First, an appreciation of the nature of design practice will at least help identify those areas where research input might have the greatest impact and allow researchers to direct their efforts towards them. Second, it may identify possible modifications to existing design practice which would allow research input to be used more effectively. Finally, it would be somewhat surprising if current design practice were not to furnish researchers with any insights into the underlying processes of users. The experience and skills of the practitioner should be a valuable source of information for the HCI researcher. For these reasons, we have been documenting some of the relationships between design practice and the usability of systems for use by non-experts. While there is considerable literature on programming behaviour (e.g. Mayer, 1981), reports of design behaviour are rare, other than occasional descriptions by practitioners of the interface design of their own products (e.g., Botterill, 1982; Smith et al., 1982). This paper focusses on the influence of the individual designers decision-making. Evidence is taken from interviews with experienced system designers concerning design issues influencing the nature of the user interface which had arisen with systems they had recently worked on. For two of the systems usability investigations had been performed (see Lewis & Mack, 1982 and Hammond et al., 1983).

How choice of mouse may affect response timing in psychological studies.

Mice from the early 1990s seemed to offer a cheap and viable alternative to more expensive response boxes, with fairly consistent results being found between studies. However, has anything changed in the intervening decade? Are newer mice technologies necessarily better? Is USB a better mouse interface than the old-fashioned serial interface? With such questions in mind, we outline a method for bench-testing the timing characteristics of mice outside of a PC, in order to predict their contribution to response timing. A sample set of mice was testedunder a visual stimulus—response paradigm, using E-Prime to compare predicted performance with measured response registration. A representative range of mice technologies was tested alongside a standard keyboard and an E-Prime deluxe response box. The implications for using any response device other than a recognized response box are discussed.

Self-validating presentation and response timing in cognitive paradigms: how and why?

With the proliferation of commercial experiment generators and custom software within cognitive psychology and the behavioral sciences, many have assumed that issues regarding millisecond timing accuracy have been largely solved. However, through empirical investigation of a variety of paradigms, we have discovered numerous sources of timing error. These can range from poor scripting practices, to incorrect timing specifications, to hardware variability. Building upon earlier research, we have developed a commercial device and associated software that enables researchers to benchmark most computer-based paradigms in situ and without modification. This gives them the opportunity to correct timing errors where practicable, increase replicability, and reduce variability by altering onset times for stimuli, by replacing inaccurate hardware, or by post hoc statistical manipulation should the source of error be constant. We outline the features of the device and accompanying software suite, stress the importance of such independent validation, and highlight typical areas that can be subject to error.

Multidisciplinary modelling in HCI design…in theory and in practice

In one of the largest multidisciplinary projects in basic HCI research to date, multiple analytic HCI techniques were combined and applied witiiin an innovative d e s i ^ context to problems identif ied by designers of an AV communication system, or media space. The problems were presented to user-, systemand design-analysts distributed across Europe. The results of analyses were integrated and passed back to the designers, and to other domain experts, for assessment. The aim of this paper is to illustrate some theory-based insights gained into key problems in media space design and to convey lessons learned about the process of contributing to design using multiple theoretical perspectives. We also describe some obstacles which must be overcome if such techniques are to be transferred successfully to practice.

Tailoring Hypertext for the Learner

Hypertext and hypermedia systems provide the user with maximum freedom over their materials. Such freedom is not necessarily a sound basis for effective learning. This paper explores how this freedom can be tamed in order to provide more appropriate learning environments without compromising the power of curiosity-driven exploration.

Travel around a learning support environment: rambling, orienteering or touring?

The traditionally separate application areas supported by database systems and instructional systems are merging in the area of learning support environments (LSEs). We discuss the provision of tools in LSEs for navigating around large knowledge bases. The optimal form of navigation will depend on the nature of the user and of the learning requirements, and thus a variety of tools must be provided. We propose the use of a travel holiday metaphor as a means for structuring a set of navigation tools and illustrate its use in a system for teaching non-formal fields of knowledge.

Discipline differences in role and use of ICT to support group‐based learning

Small-group teaching and learning is traditionally central to UK Higher Education. This paper explores how disciplines differ in their use of information and communication technologies (ICT) to support small-group activities. A framework for considering discipline differences and evidence from surveys and case studies conducted by the ASTER Project are presented. While many uses of ICT are common across the disciplines studied (drawn from the Humanities, Physical Sciences and Psychology), there are also some striking differences, in particular the infrequent use of ICT to facilitate discussion in the Physical Sciences compared to the pattern of use in the other disciplines studied. It is vital that such differences are considered when advising on the take-up of innovative teaching and learning methods.