Jeffrey C. Jerman

The endogenous lipid anandamide is a full agonist at the human vanilloid receptor (hVR1).

The endogenous cannabinoid anandamide was identified as an agonist for the recombinant human VR1 (hVR1) by screening a large array of bioactive substances using a FLIPR‐based calcium assay. Further electrophysiological studies showed that anandamide (10 or 100 μM) and capsaicin (1 μM) produced similar inward currents in hVR1 transfected, but not in parental, HEK293 cells. These currents were abolished by capsazepine (1 μM). In the FLIPR anandamide and capsaicin were full agonists at hVR1, with pEC50 values of 5.94±0.06 (n=5) and 7.13±0.11 (n=8) respectively. The response to anandamide was inhibited by capsazepine (pKB of 7.40±0.02, n=6), but not by the cannabinoid receptor antagonists AM630 or AM281. Furthermore, pretreatment with capsaicin desensitized the anandamide‐induced calcium response and vice versa. In conclusion, this study has demonstrated for the first time that anandamide acts as a full agonist at the human VR1.

TRPV3 is a temperature-sensitive vanilloid receptor-like protein

Vanilloid receptor-1 (VR1, also known as TRPV1) is a thermosensitive, nonselective cation channel that is expressed by capsaicin-sensitive sensory afferents and is activated by noxious heat, acidic pH and the alkaloid irritant capsaicin. Although VR1 gene disruption results in a loss of capsaicin responses, it has minimal effects on thermal nociception. This and other experiments—such as those showing the existence of capsaicin-insensitive heat sensors in sensory neurons—suggest the existence of thermosensitive receptors distinct from VR1. Here we identify a member of the vanilloid receptor/TRP gene family, vanilloid receptor-like protein 3 (VRL3, also known as TRPV3), which is heat-sensitive but capsaicin-insensitive. VRL3 is coded for by a 2,370-base-pair open reading frame, transcribed from a gene adjacent to VR1, and is structurally homologous to VR1. VRL3 responds to noxious heat with a threshold of about 39 °C and is co-expressed in dorsal root ganglion neurons with VR1. Furthermore, when heterologously expressed, VRL3 is able to associate with VR1 and may modulate its responses. Hence, not only is VRL3 a thermosensitive ion channel but it may represent an additional vanilloid receptor subunit involved in the formation of heteromeric vanilloid receptor channels.

Ethanol elicits and potentiates nociceptor responses via the vanilloid receptor-1.

The vanilloid receptor-1 (VR1) is a heat-gated ion channel that is responsible for the burning sensation elicited by capsaicin. A similar sensation is reported by patients with esophagitis when they consume alcoholic beverages or are administered alcohol by injection as a medical treatment. We report here that ethanol activates primary sensory neurons, resulting in neuropeptide release or plasma extravasation in the esophagus, spinal cord or skin. Sensory neurons from trigeminal or dorsal root ganglia as well as VR1-expressing HEK293 cells responded to ethanol in a concentration-dependent and capsazepine-sensitive fashion. Ethanol potentiated the response of VR1 to capsaicin, protons and heat and lowered the threshold for heat activation of VR1 from ∼42°C to ∼34°C. This provides a likely mechanistic explanation for the ethanol-induced sensory responses that occur at body temperature and for the sensitivity of inflamed tissues to ethanol, such as might be found in esophagitis, neuralgia or wounds.

SB-334867-A: THE FIRST SELECTIVE OREXIN-1 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST

The pharmacology of various peptide and non‐peptide ligands was studied in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells stably expressing human orexin‐1 (OX1) or orexin‐2 (OX2) receptors by measuring intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) using Fluo‐3AM. Orexin‐A and orexin‐B increased [Ca2+]i in CHO‐OX1 (pEC50=8.38±0.04 and 7.26±0.05 respectively, n=12) and CHO‐OX2 (pEC50=8.20±0.03 and 8.26±0.04 respectively, n=8) cells. However, neuropeptide Y and secretin (10 pM – 10 μM) displayed neither agonist nor antagonist properties in either cell‐line. SB‐334867‐A (1‐(2‐Methyylbenzoxanzol‐6‐yl)‐3‐[1,5]naphthyridin‐4‐yl‐urea hydrochloride) inhibited the orexin‐A (10 nM) and orexin‐B (100 nM)‐induced calcium responses (pKB=7.27±0.04 and 7.23±0.03 respectively, n=8), but had no effect on the UTP (3 μM)‐induced calcium response in CHO‐OX1 cells. SB‐334867‐A (10 μM) also inhibited OX2 mediated calcium responses (32.7±1.9% versus orexin‐A). SB‐334867‐A was devoid of agonist properties in either cell‐line. In conclusion, SB‐334867‐A is a non‐peptide OX1 selective receptor antagonist.

Identification and characterisation of SB-366791, a potent and selective vanilloid receptor (VR1/TRPV1) antagonist

Vanilloid receptor-1 (TRPV1) is a non-selective cation channel, predominantly expressed by peripheral sensory neurones, which is known to play a key role in the detection of noxious painful stimuli, such as capsaicin, acid and heat. To date, a number of antagonists have been used to study the physiological role of TRPV1; however, antagonists such as capsazepine are somewhat compromised by non-selective actions at other receptors and apparent modality-specific properties. SB-366791 is a novel, potent, and selective, cinnamide TRPV1 antagonist isolated via high-throughput screening of a large chemical library. In a FLIPR-based Ca(2+)-assay, SB-366791 produced a concentration-dependent inhibition of the response to capsaicin with an apparent pK(b) of 7.74 +/- 0.08. Schild analysis indicated a competitive mechanism of action with a pA2 of 7.71. In electrophysiological experiments, SB-366791 was demonstrated to be an effective antagonist of hTRPV1 when activated by different modalities, such as capsaicin, acid or noxious heat (50 degrees C). Unlike capsazepine, SB-366791 was also an effective antagonist vs. the acid-mediated activation of rTRPV1. With the aim of defining a useful tool compound, we also profiled SB-366791 in a wide range of selectivity assays. SB-366791 had a good selectivity profile exhibiting little or no effect in a panel of 47 binding assays (containing a wide range of G-protein-coupled receptors and ion channels) and a number of electrophysiological assays including hippocampal synaptic transmission and action potential firing of locus coeruleus or dorsal raphe neurones. Furthermore, unlike capsazepine, SB-366791 had no effect on either the hyperpolarisation-activated current (I(h)) or Voltage-gated Ca(2+)-channels (VGCC) in cultured rodent sensory neurones. In summary, SB-366791 is a new TRPV1 antagonist with high potency and an improved selectivity profile with respect to other commonly used TRPV1 antagonists. SB-366791 may therefore prove to be a useful tool to further study the biology of TRPV1.

1,3-Biarylureas as Selective Non-peptide Antagonists of the Orexin-1 Receptor

This communication reports SARs for the first orexin-1 receptor antagonist series of 1-aryl-3-quinolin-4-yl and 1-aryl-3-naphthyridin-4-yl ureas. One of these compounds, 31 (SB-334867), has excellent selectivity for the orexin-1 receptor, blood-brain barrier permeability and shows in vivo activity following ip dosing.

Characterisation of the binding of [3H]-SB-674042, a novel nonpeptide antagonist, to the human orexin-1 receptor

This study characterises the binding of a novel nonpeptide antagonist radioligand, [3H]SB‐674042 (1‐(5‐(2‐fluoro‐phenyl)‐2‐methyl‐thiazol‐4‐yl)‐1‐((S)‐2‐(5‐phenyl‐(1,3,4)oxadiazol‐2‐ylmethyl)‐pyrrolidin‐1‐yl)‐methanone), to the human orexin‐1 (OX1) receptor stably expressed in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells in both a whole cell assay and in a cell membrane‐based scintillation proximity assay (SPA) format. Specific binding of [3H]SB‐674042 was saturable in both whole cell and membrane formats. Analyses suggested a single high‐affinity site, with Kd values of 3.76±0.45 and 5.03±0.31 nM, and corresponding Bmax values of 30.8±1.8 and 34.4±2.0 pmol mg protein−1, in whole cell and membrane formats, respectively. Kinetic studies yielded similar Kd values. Competition studies in whole cells revealed that the native orexin peptides display a low affinity for the OX1 receptor, with orexin‐A displaying a ∼five‐fold higher affinity than orexin‐B (Ki values of 318±158 and 1516±597 nM, respectively). SB‐334867, SB‐408124 (1‐(6,8‐difluoro‐2‐methyl‐quinolin‐4‐yl)‐3‐(4‐dimethylamino‐phenyl)‐urea) and SB‐410220 (1‐(5,8‐difluoro‐quinolin‐4‐yl)‐3‐(4‐dimethylamino‐phenyl)‐urea) all displayed high affinity for the OX1 receptor in both whole cell (Ki values 99±18, 57±8.3 and 19±4.5 nM, respectively) and membrane (Ki values 38±3.6, 27±4.1 and 4.5±0.2 nM, respectively) formats. Calcium mobilisation studies showed that SB‐334867, SB‐408124 and SB‐410220 are all functional antagonists of the OX1 receptor, with potencies in line with their affinities, as measured in the radioligand binding assays, and with approximately 50‐fold selectivity over the orexin‐2 receptor. These studies indicate that [3H]SB‐674042 is a specific, high‐affinity radioligand for the OX1 receptor. The availability of this radioligand will be a valuable tool with which to investigate the physiological functions of OX1 receptors.

Characterization using FLIPR of rat vanilloid receptor (rVR1) pharmacology

The vanilloid receptor (VR1) is a ligand‐gated ion channel, which plays an important role in nociceptive processing. Therefore, a pharmacological characterization of the recently cloned rat VR1 (rVR1) was undertaken. HEK293 cells stable expressing rVR1 (rVR1‐HEK293) were loaded with Fluo‐3AM and then incubated at 25°C for 30 min with or without various antagonists or signal transduction modifying agents. Then intracellular calcium concentrations ([Ca2+]i) were monitored using FLIPR, before and after the addition of various agonists. The rank order of potency of agonists (resiniferatoxin (RTX)>capsaicin>olvanil>PPAHV) was as expected, and all were full agonists. The potencies of capsaicin and olvanil, but not RTX or PPAHV, were enhanced at pH 6.4 (pEC50 values of 7.47±0.06, 7.16±0.06, 8.19±0.06 and 6.02±0.03 respectively at pH 7.4 vs 7.71±0.05, 7.58±0.14, 8.10±0.05 and 6.04±0.08 at pH 6.4). Capsazepine, isovelleral and ruthenium red all inhibited the capsaicin (100 nM)‐induced Ca2+ response in rVR1‐HEK293 cells, with pKB values of 7.52±0.08, 6.92±0.11 and 8.09±0.12 respectively (n=6 each). The response to RTX and olvanil were also inhibited by these compounds. None displayed any agonist‐like activity. The removal of extracellular Ca2+ abolished, whilst inhibition of protein kinase C with chelerythrine chloride (10 μM) partially (∼20%) inhibited, the capsaicin (10 μM)‐induced Ca2+ response. However, tetrodotoxin (3 μM), nimodipine (10 μM), ω‐GVIA conotoxin (1 μM), thapsigargin (1 μM), U73122 (3 μM) or H‐89 (3 μM) had no effect on the capsaicin (100 nM)‐induced response. In conclusion, the recombinant rVR1 stably expressed in HEK293 cells acts as a ligand‐gated Ca2+ channel with the appropriate agonist and antagonist pharmacology, and therefore is a suitable model for studying the effects of drugs at this receptor.

Pharmacological characterisation of human 5-HT2 receptor subtypes.

Prompted by conflicting literature, this study compared the pharmacology of human 5-hydroxytryptamine2 (5-HT2) receptors expressed in SH-SY5Y cells using a fluorometric imaging plate reader (FLIPR) based Ca2+ assay. 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) increased intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) at 5-HT2A, 5-HT2B and 5-HT2C receptors (pEC(50)=7.73+/-0.03, 8.86+/-0.04 and 7.99+/-0.04, respectively) and these responses were inhibited by mesulergine (pKB=7.42+/-0.06, 8.77+/-0.10 and 9.52+/-0.11). A range of selective agonists and antagonists displayed the expected pharmacology at each receptor subtype. Sodium butyrate pretreatment increased receptor expression in SH-SY5Y/5-HT2B (15-fold) and SH-SY5Y/5-HT2C cells (7-fold) and increased agonist potencies and relative efficacies. In contrast, sodium butyrate pretreatment of SH-SY5Y/5-HT(2A) cells did not affect receptor expression. The present study provides a direct comparison of agonist and antagonist pharmacology at 5-HT(2) receptor subtypes in a homogenous system and confirms that agonist potency and efficacy varies with the level of receptor expression.

Characterisation using FLIPR of human vanilloid VR1 receptor pharmacology

A full pharmacological characterisation of the recently cloned human vanilloid VR1 receptor was undertaken. In whole-cell patch clamp studies, capsaicin (10 microM) elicited a slowly activating/deactivating inward current in human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells stably expressing human vanilloid VR1 receptor, which exhibited pronounced outward rectification (reversal potential -2.1+/-0.2 mV) and was abolished by capsazepine (10 microM). In FLIPR-based Ca(2+) imaging studies the rank order of potency was resiniferatoxin>olvanil>capsaicin>anandamide, and all were full agonists. Isovelleral and scutigeral were inactive (1 nM-30 microM). The potencies of capsaicin, olvanil and resiniferatoxin, but not anandamide, were enhanced 2- to 7-fold at pH 6.4. Capsazepine, isovelleral and ruthenium red inhibited the capsaicin (100 nM)-induced Ca(2+) response (pK(B)=6.58+/-0.02, 5.33+/-0.03 and 7.64+/-0.03, respectively). In conclusion, the recombinant human vanilloid VR1 receptor stably expressed in HEK293 cells acted as a ligand-gated, Ca(2+)-permeable channel with similar agonist and antagonist pharmacology to rat vanilloid VR1 receptor, although there were some subtle differences.