Jeffrey J. Warren

Thermochemistry of Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer Reagents and its Implications

Many, if not most, redox reactions are coupled to proton transfers. This includes most common sources of chemical potential energy, from the bioenergetic processes that power cells to the fossil fuel combustion that powers cars. These proton-coupled electron transfer or PCET processes may involve multiple electrons and multiple protons, as in the 4 e–, 4 H+ reduction of dioxygen (O2) to water (eq 1), or can involve one electron and one proton such as the formation of tyrosyl radicals from tyrosine residues (TyrOH) in enzymatic catalytic cycles (eq 2). In addition, many multi-electron, multi-proton processes proceed in one-electron and one-proton steps. Organic reactions that proceed in one-electron steps involve radical intermediates, which play critical roles in a wide range of chemical, biological, and industrial processes. This broad and diverse class of PCET reactions are central to a great many chemical and biochemical processes, from biological catalysis and energy transduction, to bulk industrial chemical processes, to new approaches to solar energy conversion. PCET is therefore of broad and increasing interest, as illustrated by this issue and a number of other recent reviews.

Noncovalent immobilization of electrocatalysts on carbon electrodes for fuel production.

We show that molecular catalysts for fuel-forming reactions can be immobilized on graphitic carbon electrode surfaces via noncovalent interactions. A pyrene-appended bipyridine ligand (P) serves as the linker between each complex and the surface. Immobilization of a rhodium proton-reduction catalyst, [Cp*Rh(P)Cl]Cl (1), and a rhenium CO2-reduction catalyst, Re(P)(CO)3Cl (2), afford electrocatalytically active assemblies. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and electrochemistry confirm catalyst immobilization. Reduction of 1 in the presence of p-toluenesulfonic acid results in catalytic H2 production, while reduction of 2 in the presence of CO2 results in catalytic CO production.

Predicting organic hydrogen atom transfer rate constants using the Marcus cross relation

Chemical reactions that involve net hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) are ubiquitous in chemistry and biology, from the action of antioxidants to industrial and metalloenzyme catalysis. This report develops and validates a procedure to predict rate constants for HAT reactions of oxyl radicals (RO•) in various media. Our procedure uses the Marcus cross relation (CR) and includes adjustments for solvent hydrogen-bonding effects on both the kinetics and thermodynamics of the reactions. Kinetic solvent effects (KSEs) are included by using Ingold’s model, and thermodynamic solvent effects are accounted for by using an empirical model developed by Abraham. These adjustments are shown to be critical to the success of our combined model, referred to as the CR/KSE model. As an initial test of the CR/KSE model we measured self-exchange and cross rate constants in different solvents for reactions of the 2,4,6-tri-tert-butylphenoxyl radical and the hydroxylamine 2,2′-6,6′-tetramethyl-piperidin-1-ol. Excellent agreement is observed between the calculated and directly determined cross rate constants. We then extend the model to over 30 known HAT reactions of oxyl radicals with OH or CH bonds, including biologically relevant reactions of ascorbate, peroxyl radicals, and α-tocopherol. The CR/KSE model shows remarkable predictive power, predicting rate constants to within a factor of 5 for almost all of the surveyed HAT reactions.

Inner- and outer-sphere metal coordination in blue copper proteins

Blue copper proteins (BCPs) comprise classic cases of Natures profound control over the electronic structures and chemical reactivity of transition metal ions. Early studies of BCPs focused on their inner coordination spheres, that is, residues that directly coordinate Cu. Equally important are the electronic and geometric perturbations to these ligands provided by the outer coordination sphere. In this tribute to Hans Freeman, we review investigations that have advanced the understanding of how inner-sphere and outer-sphere coordination affects biological Cu properties.

Redox Properties of Tyrosine and Related Molecules

Redox reactions of tyrosine play key roles in many biological processes, including water oxidation and DNA synthesis. We first review the redox properties of tyrosine (and other phenols) in small molecules and related polypeptides, then report work on (H20)/(Y48)‐modified Pseudomonas aeruginosa azurin. The crystal structure of this protein (1.18 Å resolution) shows that H20 is strongly hydrogen bonded to Y48 (2.7–2.8 Å tyrosine‐O to histidine‐N distance). A firm conclusion is that proper tuning of the tyrosine potential by a proton‐accepting base is critical for biological redox functions.

Moving Protons and Electrons in Biomimetic Systems

An enormous variety of biological redox reactions are accompanied by changes in proton content at enzyme active sites, in their associated cofactors, in substrates and/or products, and between protein interfaces. Understanding this breadth of reactivity is an ongoing chemical challenge. A great many workers have developed and investigated biomimetic model complexes to build new ways of thinking about the mechanistic underpinnings of such complex biological proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) reactions. Of particular importance are those model reactions that involve transfer of one proton (H(+)) and one electron (e(-)), which is equivalent to transfer of a hydrogen atom (H(•)). In this Current Topic, we review key concepts in PCET reactivity and describe important advances in biomimetic PCET chemistry, with a special emphasis on research that has enhanced efforts to understand biological PCET reactions.

Surprisingly long-lived ascorbyl radicals in acetonitrile: concerted proton-electron transfer reactions and thermochemistry.

Proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) reactions and thermochemistry of 5,6-isopropylidene ascorbate (iAscH-) have been examined in acetonitrile solvent. iAscH- is oxidized by 2,4,6-tBu3C6H2O. and by excess TEMPO. to give the corresponding 5,6-isopropylidene ascorbyl radical anion (iAsc.-), which persists for hours at 298 K in dry MeCN solution. The stability of iAsc.- is surprising in light of the transience of the ascorbyl radical in aqueous solutions and is due to the lack of the protons needed for radical disproportionation. A concerted proton-electron transfer (CPET) mechanism is indicated for the reactions of iAscH-. Redox potential, pKa and equilibrium measurements define the thermochemical landscape for 5,6-isopropylidene ascorbic acid and its derivatives in MeCN. These measurements give an O-H bond dissociation free energy (BDFE) for iAscH- of 65.4 +/- 1.5 kcal mol-1 in MeCN. Similar studies on underivatized ascorbate indicate a BDFE of 67.8 +/- 1.2 kcal mol-1. These values are much lower than the aqueous BDFE for ascorbate of 74.0 +/- 1.5 kcal mol-1 derived from reported data.

Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer Reactions at a Heme-Propionate in an Iron-Protoporphyrin-IX Model Compound

A heme model system has been developed in which the heme-propionate is the only proton donating/accepting site, using protoporphyrin IX-monomethyl esters (PPIX(MME)) and N-methylimidazole (MeIm). Proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) reactions of these model compounds have been examined in acetonitrile solvent. (PPIX(MME))Fe(III)(MeIm)(2)-propionate (Fe(III)~CO(2)) is readily reduced by the ascorbate derivative 5,6-isopropylidine ascorbate to give (PPIX(MME))Fe(II)(MeIm)(2)-propionic acid (Fe(II)~CO(2)H). An excess of the hydroxylamine TEMPOH or of hydroquinone similarly reduces Fe(III)~CO(2), and TEMPO and benzoquinone oxidize Fe(II)~CO(2)H to return to Fe(III)~CO(2). The measured equilibrium constants, and the determined pK(a) and E(1/2) values, indicate that Fe(II)~CO(2)H has an effective bond dissociation free energy (BDFE) of 67.8 ± 0.6 kcal mol(-1). In these PPIX models, electron transfer occurs at the iron center and proton transfer occurs at the remote heme propionate. According to thermochemical and other arguments, the TEMPOH reaction occurs by concerted proton-electron transfer (CPET), and a similar pathway is indicated for the ascorbate derivative. Based on these results, heme propionates should be considered as potential key components of PCET/CPET active sites in heme proteins.

Hydrogen atom transfer reactions of iron-porphyrin-imidazole complexes as models for histidine-ligated heme reactivity.

Hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) reactions of the bis(histidine) cytochrome active site models (TPP)FeII(ImH)2 (FeIIImH) and (TPP)Fe(Im)(ImH) (FeIIIIm) have been examined in acetonitrile solvent (TPP = tetraphenylporphyrin, ImH = 4-methylimidazole). The ascorbate derivative 5,6-isopropylidine ascorbate, hydroquinone, and the hydroxylamine TEMPOH all rapidly add H* to FeIIIIm to give FeIIImH. Similarly, the phenoxyl radical 2,4,6-tBu3C6H2O* and excess TEMPO* each oxidize FeIIImH to give FeIIIIm. On the basis of redox potential, pKa, and equilibrium measurements, the N-H bond in FeIIImH was found to have a bond dissociation free energy (BDFE) of 70 +/- 2 kcal mol(-1). A hydrogen atom transfer mechanism (concerted transfer of e- and H+) is indicated based on data for the ascorbate and TEMPO* reactions.

CF3 Derivatives of the Anticancer Ru(III) Complexes KP1019, NKP-1339, and Their Imidazole and Pyridine Analogues Show Enhanced Lipophilicity, Albumin Interactions, and Cytotoxicity.

The Ru(III) complexes indazolium [trans-RuCl4(1H-indazole)2] (KP1019) and sodium [trans-RuCl4(1H-indazole)2] (NKP-1339) are leading candidates for the next generation of metal-based chemotherapeutics. Trifluoromethyl derivatives of these compounds and their imidazole and pyridine analogues were synthesized to probe the effect of ligand lipophilicity on the pharmacological properties of these types of complexes. Addition of CF3 groups also provided a spectroscopic handle for (19)F NMR studies of ligand exchange processes and protein interactions. The lipophilicities of the CF3-functionalized compounds and their unsubstituted parent complexes were quantified by the shake-flask method to give the distribution coefficient D at pH 7.4 (log D7.4). The solution behavior of the CF3-functionalized complexes was characterized in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) using (19)F NMR, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), and UV-vis spectroscopies. These techniques, along with fluorescence competition experiments, were also used to characterize interactions with human serum albumin (HSA). From these studies it was determined that increased lipophilicity correlates with reduced solubility in PBS but enhancement of noncoordinate interactions with hydrophobic domains of HSA. These protein interactions improve the solubility of the complexes and inhibit the formation of oligomeric species. EPR measurements also demonstrated the formation of HSA-coordinated species with longer incubation. (19)F NMR spectra show that the trifluoromethyl complexes release axial ligands in PBS and in the presence of HSA. In vitro testing showed that the most lipophilic complexes had the greatest cytotoxic activity. Addition of CF3 groups enhances the activity of the indazole complex against A549 nonsmall cell lung carcinoma cells. Furthermore, in the case of the pyridine complexes, the parent compound was inactive against the HT-29 human colon carcinoma cell line but showed strong cytotoxicity with CF3 functionalization. Overall, these studies demonstrate that lipophilicity may be a determining factor in the anticancer activity and pharmacological behavior of these types of Ru(III) complexes.