Jeremy D. Finn

Withdrawing From School

Research on dropping out of school has focused on characteristics of the individual or institution that correlate with the dropout decision. Many of these characteristics are nonmanipulable, and all are measured at one point in time, late in the youngster’s school career. This paper describes two models for understanding dropping out as a developmental process that may begin in the earliest grades. The frustration-self-esteem model has been used for years in the study of juvenile delinquency; it identifies school failure as the starting point in a cycle that may culminate in the student’s rejecting, or being rejected by, the school. The participation-identification model focuses on students’ “involvement in schooling,” with both behavioral and emotional components. According to this formulation, the likelihood that a youngster will successfully complete 12 years of schooling is maximized if he or she maintains multiple, expanding forms of participation in school-relevant activities. The failure of a youngster to participate in school and class activities, or to develop a sense of identification with school, may have significant deleterious consequences. The ability to manipulate modes of participation poses promising avenues for further research as well as for intervention efforts.

Answers and Questions About Class Size: A Statewide Experiment:

A large-scale experiment is described in which kindergarten students and teachers were randomly assigned to small and large classes within each participating school. Students remained in these classes for 2 years. At the end of each grade they were measured in reading and mathematics by standardized and curriculum-based tests. The results are definitive: (a) a significant benefit accrues to students in reduced-size classes in both subject areas and (b) there is evidence that minority students in particular benefit from the smaller class environment, especially when curriculum-based tests are used as the learning criteria. A longitudinal analysis of a portion of the sample indicated that students in small classes outperform their peers in kindergarten classes of regular size and also gain more in reading outcomes during the second year. The question of why these effects are realized remains largely unanswered, but in light of these findings, is particularly important to pursue.

School Characteristics Related to Student Engagement.

It is well established that American students at risk often exhibit patterns of emotional and behavioral withdrawal or disengagement from school. These withdrawal behaviors may culminate in complete disengagement, that is, leaving school without graduating. This investigation examines aspects of the structural and regulatory environment of schools to identify features that are associated with higher levels of engagement among eighth-grade students at risk.

The “Why’s” of Class Size: Student Behavior in Small Classes:

Small classes in the elementary grades have been shown to boost students’ academic performance. However, researchers continue to seek a consistent, integrated explanation of “why” small classes have positive effects. This article forwards the hypothesis that when class sizes are reduced, major changes occur in students’ engagement in the classroom. Engagement is composed of “learning behavior” and pro- and antisocial behavior. Both are highly related to academic performance. We first review research on the relationship between class size and student engagement. Second, we review sociological and psychological theory about the behavior of individuals in groups to explain how student behavior can be affected by changes in class size. Both theory and empirical findings support our hypothesis, although additional research is required. High-priority questions needing further research are identified in the conclusion.

The Enduring Effects of Small Classes.

The purpose of this investigation was to extend our knowledge of the effects of small classes in the primary grades on pupils’ academic achievement. Three questions were addressed that have not been answered in previous research: (1) How large are the effects of small classes relative to the number of years students participate in those classes? (2) How much does any participation in small classes in K–3 affect performance in later grades when all classes are full-size? (3) How much does the duration of participation in small classes in K–3 affect the magnitude of the benefits in later grades (4, 6, and 8)? Rationales for expecting the continuing impacts of small classes were derived in the context of other educational interventions (for example, Head Start, Perry Preschool Project). The questions were answered using data from Tennessee’s Project STAR, a statewide controlled experiment in which pupils were assigned at random to small classes, full-size classes, or classes with a full-time teaching assistant. Hierarchical linear models (HLMs) were employed because of the multilevel nature of the data; the magnitude of the small-class effect was expressed on several scales including “months of schooling.” The results for question (1) indicate that both the year in which a student first enters a small class and the number of years (s)he participates in a small class are important mediators of the benefits gained. The results for questions (2) and (3) indicate that starting early and continuing in small classes for at least three years are necessary to assure long-term carryover effects. Few immediate effects of participation in a class with a full-time teacher aide, and no long-term benefits, were found. The results are discussed in terms of implications for class-size reduction initiatives and further research questions.

Small Classes in the Early Grades, Academic Achievement, and Graduating From High School

The purpose of this investigation was to address three questions about the long-term effects of early school experiences: (a) Is participation in small classes in the early grades (K–3) related to the likelihood that a student will graduate from high school? (b) Is academic achievement in the early grades related to high school graduation? (c) If class size in K–3 is related to high school graduation, is the relationship attributable to the effect of small classes on students’ academic achievement and the subsequent effect of achievement on graduation? This study is unique in several ways. Although the relationship of class size with achievement and behavior has been documented elsewhere, no formal examination of early class sizes and graduating or dropping out 6 to 9 years later has been published previously. Also, the study was based on an extraordinary database—a large sample of students followed for 13 years, 1 with norm-referenced and criterion-referenced achievement tests administered annually and graduation/dropout information collected from official school and state records.

Participation and Withdrawal Among Fourth-Grade Pupils

Pupil participation in elementary school classrooms is essential for learning to occur, while nonparticipation in early grades can initiate a cycle that culminates in total withdrawal—dropping out—in later years. This study explores the nature of participation and nonparticipation among fourth-grade students. A sample of 1388 youngsters was rated by their teachers on a questionnaire assessing nonparticipatory behavior, minimal adequate effort, and initiative-taking behavior. Based on the ratings, three groups were formed: active participants, passive participants, and nonparticipating students. The groups were compared on demographic characteristics, attendance, achievement, and self-concept for the the preceding 3 years. Participation groups were clearly distinct on the achievement measures since first grade, and they maintained those distinctions over time. It is concluded that youngsters who withdraw from participation in the classroom should be identified at the earliest possible time to attempt to avert the harmful effects that may ensue.

Teacher Aides and Students’ Academic Achievement

Despite more than 600,000 teacher aides in American schools today, research provides little information about their classroom activities, their qualifications for carrying out their duties, or their impact on student achievement and behavior. This investigation asked whether the presence of a teacher aide in the classroom has any noticeable impact on pupils’ learning. Three primary questions were addressed: (1) In Grades K through 3, does the presence of a full-time teacher aide in the classroom affect students’ academic achievement? (2) If teacher aides have a positive effect on students’ performance, does the effect depend on the number of years the student attends classes with a teacher aide? (3) Do some functions of aides (i.e., clerical tasks, instructional tasks, noninstructional tasks) have a greater impact on student achievement than others? This investigation showed that the teacher aide movement in the United States has created a state of affairs that requires many aides to perform tasks for which they are ill-prepared. In addition, teacher aide data were analyzed from Tennessee’s Project STAR, a longitudinal experiment in which students were assigned at random to small classes, regular-size classes without an aide, or regular-size classes with a full-time teacher aide. The analyses reported here extend previous investigations, examining the functions and effects of teacher aides in depth. The results showed that teacher aides have little, if any, positive effect on students’ academic achievement. The only positive effect was an improvement in reading scores for students who attended a class with a teacher aide for 2 or 3 years. These results were the only exceptions to a plethora of negative findings. The study also showed that the types of duties aides performed had no bearing on student achievement. Because teacher aides are called upon increasingly to provide instruction to pupils, policies and research must help us select and prepare aides to perform effectively.

Measuring Participation among Elementary Grade Students

Research on children at risk for school failure emphasizes the need to understand the ways in which pupils are engaged or disengage from class and school activities. This paper describes the development of a teacher rating scale that assesses the form and extent of participation among elementary grade pupils. The Student Participation Questionnaire was tested with a large sample of Grade-4 teachers and their pupils. Three reliable scales were obtained and labeled (a) Effort, (b) Initiative, and (c) Nonparticipatory Behavior, along with a short scale that reflects the extent to which the student values school achievement. Analysis of variance of the subscales indicated that females, pupils from homes with higher incomes, and nonminority pupils generally participate in the classroom more than their peers, although there is some confounding of the race and SES effects. The instrument should prove particularly useful in further research on student involvement.

Carry-Over Effects of Small Classes.

Abstract A two‐part follow‐up study was conducted of students in grade 4 who had participated in the reduced class size experiment during the preceding years. Outcome measures included a range of norm referenced and criterion referenced achievement tests and teachers’ ratings of the youngsters’ effort, initiative taking, and disruptive behavior in the fourth grade classroom. Statistically significant carry‐over effects of small classes were found on every achievement measure. Significant differences were also found in participation levels between students who had attended small classes and those in regular classes, but these were not as consistent as the impact on cognitive performance. The confirmed consequences of placing youngsters in classes with 12 to 17 pupils need to be supplemented by research on other outcomes in order to compare the complete range of benefits with the relatively large monetary costs that could be incurred.