Jerome R. Koch

Body art, deviance, and American college students

Abstract This research examines the relationship between body art (tattoos and piercings) and deviance. With the increasing mainstream presence of visible tattoos and piercings among entertainers, athletes, and even in corporate boardrooms, we wonder the extent to which long-time enthusiasts and collectors regard the phenomenon as encroachment. We use sub-cultural identity theory to propose that individuals with increasing evidence of body art procurement will also report higher levels of deviant behavior in order to maintain and/or increase social distance from the mainstream. We tested this proposition by surveying 1753 American college students, asking them to report their level of body art acquisition and their history of deviance. Results indicate that respondents with four or more tattoos, seven or more body piercings, or piercings located in their nipples or genitals, were substantively and significantly more likely to report regular marijuana use, occasional use of other illegal drugs, and a history of being arrested for a crime. Less pronounced, but still significant in many cases, was an increased propensity for those with higher incidence of body art to cheat on college work, binge drink, and report having had multiple sex partners in the course of their lifetime.

Motivation for Contemporary Tattoo Removal A Shift in Identity

OBJECTIVE To compare the results of a 1996 study of tattoo possession and motivation for tattoo removal with those of a 2006 study, in light of todays current strong mainstream tattoo procurement and societal support within the young adult population. DESIGN Descriptive, exploratory study. SETTING Four dermatology clinics in Arizona, Colorado, Massachusetts, and Texas. PARTICIPANTS The 2006 study included 196 tattooed patients (66 men and 130 women). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Incidence of purchase and possession risk, as measured by a 127-item survey and factor analysis. RESULTS In contrast to the 1996 study, more women (69%) than men (31%) presented for tattoo removal in 2006. Women in the 2006 study were white, single, college educated, and between the ages of 24 and 39 years; they reported being risk takers, having stable family relationships, and moderate to strong religious beliefs (prayer and closeness to God). Commonly, tattoos were obtained at approximately 20 years of age, providing internal expectations of uniqueness and self-identity. Tattoo possession risks were significant, cited when the quest for uniqueness turned into stigmata (P < .001), negative comments (P < .003), and clothes problems (P < .004). CONCLUSIONS In both the 1996 and the 2006 studies, a shift in identity occurred, and removal centered around dissociating from the past. However, in the 2006 study, more women than men were notably affected by possession risks. Societal support for women with tattoos may not be as strong as for men. Rather than having visible tattoos, women may still want to choose self-controlled body site placement, even in our contemporary society.

COLLEGE STUDENTS, TATTOOS, AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY

This research examined the association of having a tattoo and engaging in premarital sexual intercourse. Data gathered from a convenience sample of 450 college students indicated that tattooed respondents were substantively and significantly more likely to be sexually active than nontattooed college students. Tattooed men became sexually active at a significantly earlier age than nontattooed men but no such difference was found between tattooed and nontattooed college women.

College students and tattoos: Influence of image, identity, family, and friends

Tattoos are popular among many groups of people. College students from a large university in the southwestern United States were queried using the 134-item Armstrong Team Tattoo Attitude Survey. Findings documents a progressive increase in tattooing and reflect significant support for tattoos, even from non-tattooed students. Similar and positive demographic characteristics were present in individuals who were both non-tattooed and tattooed. In addition, tattooed people were viewed positively, even among non-tattooed respondents. Friends significantly affected procurement and possession of tattoos, whereas of all family members, the sister was the only significant influence. Overall, friends, identity, and image seem to be the major influences for obtaining tattoos.

College Students, Tattooing, And The Health Belief Model: Extending Social Psychological Perspectives On Youth Culture And Deviance

ABSTRACT This research extends social psychological models which have previously been used to explain tattooing behavior. We apply the Health Belief Model to the decision-making process by which young adults express interest in or obtain a tattoo. We examine the five components of the Health Belief Model with regard to the likelihood of being tattooed, being interested in tattoos, or obtaining a (or another) tattoo. Survey data were gathered from 520 undergraduate students at a large, public university in the southwest. Their responses show the Health Belief Model to be a significant predictor of this behavior among the students in our sample.

Social Context and the Presbyterian Gay/Lesbian Ordination Debate: Testing Open-Systems Theory

This paper examines the context within which Presbyterian Church (USA) leaders formally decided to prohibit the ordination of openly gay and lesbian elders, deacons, and clergy. Data from resolutions presented to Presbyterian General Assemblies from 1990-1996 reveal that a disproportionate percentage of initiatives seeking to restrict leaderssexual behavior in general, and homosexual behavior in particular, come from Synods located where conservative Christians dominate the religious culture. State and county-level data on religious affiliation gathered by the Glenmary Research Center were merged to correspond with Synod boundaries. Analysis reveals that resolutions explicitly prohibiting homosexual and non-marital sexual behavior by church leaders are, overall, more likely to come from Synods where conservative Christians disproportionately outnumber Presbyterians. However, our analysis falls short of completely explaining this phenomenon. The Synod from which the single largest number of conservative overtures originated is actually the same one wherein conservatives are least prevalent. Thus, we provide qualified evidence that aspects of the larger Open-System within which church leaders make decisions help predict organizational action. In general, we argue that Presbyterian leaders who live and work where Biblical conservatism dominates the cultural scene are more likely to act in ways which reflect a literal interpretation of Biblical prohibitions against homosexuality. But much more work needs to be done.

Is religion a health resource for the poor

Abstract This paper uses data from the 2004 General Social Survey to examine the relationship between religious belief and practice (religiosity), spirituality, social support, and health status. Health status is conceptualized first in terms of a subjective assessment and, second, as two objective indicators of physical problems. These relationships were examined first within the total GSS sample, and then separately for respondents who reported below or above the median annual income. Results indicate that spirituality is a positive predictor of respondents’ subjective assessment of their health in the overall sample, but not in either separate income group. Social support does not predict positive subjective or objective health outcomes in the entire sample or for any income group. However, religiosity is a positive predictor of physical health, but only for the most severe of the physical health problems measured, and only for respondents whose annual income is below the national median. Thus, it appears that religiosity is a health resource for those below average income.

Investigating the removal of body piercings.

Although body piercing procurement continues to increase, 13% to 18% of them are removed. Reasons for piercing removal in college students were examined with three groups: (a) those who kept all their piercings, (b) those who removed some, or (c) those who removed all of their body piercings. Of the sample, 41% were still pierced; 50% in their lifetime. Their major purpose for the body piercing was “helped them feel unique.” Females obtained more (in high school) and then removed more, usually as upperclassmen. Males and females reported themselves as risk takers at procedure time and currently; however, only 10% cited deviancy as a reason for the body piercing(s). Only removal elements of “I just got tired of it” and “I just decided to remove it” were present, especially with the Some Removed Group. Further examination of body piercing building personal distinctiveness and self-identity to promote their need of uniqueness is suggested.

The Religious Affiliations of American Elites, 1930S to 1990S: A Note on the Pace of Disestablishment

Abstract This paper tests the “disestablishment thesis” that Americas Protestant Establishment has declined over the course of the century, especially in the last 30 years. Using Whos Who data from 1930, 1950, 1970, and 1992, we examine the religious affiliations of American elites, and the extent to which religious groups are over- or under-represented among elites relative to their numbers in the total U.S. population. Results support claims that the Protestant Establishment has lost prominence over the years. The data also indicate that there are more Catholics, Jews, and Lutherans among elites. However, other Protestant groups (e.g., Baptists) and Catholics remain under-represented in Whos Who. Establishment groups and other elite religions (Unitarian-Universalists and Quakers) remain over-represented. Jews have gained relative to their numbers in the total population and are over-represented. We use a neo-Weberian framework to interpret the findings.

Body art education: the earlier, the better.

Using the major format identified for successful prevention and intervention work, five “W” questions: what, why, whom, where, and who, plus one: how, this article first summarizes the current body art literature. Then, educational strategies specifically regarding the topic of tattoos and body piercing are presented for school nurses. These strategies can be used to create applicable, realistic information for young students before they are faced with decisions related to body art. The school nurse might be the first and only credible source of information the students receive related to body art in an education/health environment. Curriculum emphasis is on the decision making leading up to the action, and the major purposes, rather than on the markings or jewelry associated with procurement. Reducing decisional conflict while promoting positive development in the areas of empowerment, self-esteem, and maturing can help achieve stronger informed decision making.