Jim Golby

Effect of a psychological skills training program on swimming performance and positive psychological development

Abstract Research has shown that psychological skills training can be effective in enhancing athletes’ performance and positively influencing cognitive and affective states (cf. Williams & Krane, 2001). However, to date, little work has been conducted investigating such processes with adolescent high‐performing swimmers. The present study examined the effects of a seven‐week psychological skills training (PST) program on competitive swimming performance and positive psychological development. Thirty‐six national level swimmers (13 boys, 23 girls; M = 13.9 years old) followed a PST program for 45 minutes per week. The intervention consisted of goal setting, visualization, relaxation, concentration, and thought stopping. Performance times were obtained from official meets. Participants completed seven inventories measuring quality of performance, and six positive psychological attributes: mental toughness, hardiness, self‐esteem, self‐efficacy, dispositional optimism, and positive affectivity. Findings demonstrated that there was a significant post‐PST program improvement in three separate swimming strokes, each over 200 m. Non‐significant improvements were shown in 10 other events. There was also an overall significant improvement in participants’ post‐intervention positive psychological profiles

Progress Toward Construct Validation of the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ)

This study examines the construct validity of an original self-report instrument for the assessment of mental toughness: the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ). Two independent studies supported a three-factor (Confidence, Constancy, and Control) 14-item model for the SMTQ. With a sample of 633 athletes (427 males, 206 females; M age = 21.5 years; SD = 5.48), drawn from 25 sport classifications, and competing at international, national, county and provincial, or club and regional standards, the first study utilized item development and exploratory factor analytic techniques to establish the psychometric properties of the SMTQ. Study 2 employed confirmatory factor analytic techniques with an independent sample of 509 sports performers (351 males, 158 females; M age = 20.2 years; SD = 3.35), competing at the aforementioned standards, and representative of 26 sports. Confirmatory analysis using structural equation modeling confirmed the overall structure. A single factor underlying mental toughness...

Evaluating the factor structure of the Psychological Performance Inventory.

This study assesses the construct validity of a measure of mental toughness, Loehrs Psychological Performance Inventory. Performers (N = 408, 303 men, 105 women, M age = 24.0 yr., SD = 6.7) drawn from eight sports (artistic roller-skating, basketball, canoeing, golf, rugby league, rugby union, soccer, swimming), and competing at either international, national, county and provincial, or club and regional standards. They completed the 42-item Psychological Performance Inventory during training camps. Principal components analysis provided minimal support for the factor structure. Instead, the exploratory analysis yielded a 4-factor 14-item model (PPIA). A single factor underlying mental toughness (GMT) was identified with higher-order exploratory factor analysis using the Schmid-Leiman procedure. Psychometric analysis of the model, using confirmatory analysis techniques, fitted the data well. Collectively satisfying absolute and incremental fit index benchmarks, the inventory possesses satisfactory psychometric properties, with adequate reliability and convergent and discriminant validity. The results lend preliminary support to the factorial validity and reliability of the model; however, further investigation of its stability is required before recommending practitioners use changes in scores as an index for evaluating effects of training in psychological skills.

The Efficacy of an Outdoor Adventure Education Curriculum on Selected Aspects of Positive Psychological Development

To date, little empirical research has been conducted to support the claim that outdoor adventure education (OAE) develops desirable psychological characteristics in participants. This study examined the effects of an OAE foundation degree curriculum on positive psychological development. Fifty-two students (26 OAE students, 26 controls on an unrelated course), aged 16–39 years, completed a battery of positive psychological questionnaires (at the start of their respective courses and 3 months later) measuring hardiness, mental toughness, self-esteem, self-efficacy, dispositional optimism, and positive affectivity. OAE curriculum activities included rock-climbing, navigation training, countryside leadership, gill-scrambling, and open canoeing. Control students were enrolled on a classroom-based travel and tourism college course. Inferential multivariate statistics revealed non-significant (p > .05, partial η2 = .38) improvements by the OAE group across several psychological constructs. Significant effects (p < .05, partial η2 = .15) for the cohort were revealed for total hardiness. No significant gender differences were reported. The non-significant overall effect is interpreted in terms of sample size, OAE activities, and measured personality styles. The implications of these results are discussed relative to previous findings and in terms of psychological theory.

The Relationship Between Genotype and Positive Psychological Development in National-Level Swimmers

We report a preliminary study of the relationship between genotype (using a functional polymorphism of the serotonin transporter 5-HTT gene) and positive psychological development in high-achieving adolescent swimmers. Thirty-one volunteers of both genders, aged 10-24 years, completed a battery of positive psychological questionnaires measuring hardiness, mental toughness, self-esteem, self-efficacy, dispositional optimism, and positive affectivity. DNA samples were obtained via buccal swabs. The sample was initially split into three groups on the basis of 5-HTT genotype: SS, SL, and LL. Multivariate statistics revealed a discernible trend of a relationship between LL genotype and higher levels of positive psychological development. The nonsignificant overall effect is interpreted in terms of sample size and age of participants. The implications of these results are discussed relative to previous findings and in terms of psychological theory.

Personality hardiness differentiates elite-level sport performers.

Abstract Hardiness has three components: commitment to full involvement in life (commitment), belief in personal control over events (control), and enjoyment of challenge and opportunity (challenge). Evidence drawn across a variety of work environments suggests that these hardiness components facilitate optimal functioning. However, to date, only minimal empirical attention has been devoted to replicating such findings in the realm of competitive sport. This study examined the potential of the hardiness construct in differentiating elite‐level sport performers. Volunteers (N = 1566; M = 21.7 years; SD = 4.2) were drawn from 16 sport classifications and were presently competing at international, national, county/provincial, or club/regional competitive levels. They completed the 18‐item Personal Views Survey III‐R in their respective training camps. Multivariate analysis of covariance revealed that international competitors scored significantly higher (p < .001) in commitment and total hardiness compared to counterparts in each of the other three competitive levels, and they scored higher in control in comparison to national and club performers when adjustments were made for age, type of sport, category of sport, and gender. This research identifies that a psychological profile that includes high levels of hardiness appears to distinguish elite‐level competitors from subelite performers. Implications and future research suggestions are discussed

Recovery of Rowing Sprint Performance after High Intensity Strength Training

This study evaluated the impact of a high-intensity strength training session on rowing sprint performance. Ten male club rowers performed a baseline counter-movement jump (CMJ) and a 250 m rowing ergometer sprint (250 m). Twenty-four hours after baseline, participants performed a high-intensity strength training session (ST) consisting of multi-joint barbell exercises. At 24 h, 48 h and 72 h post-ST, CMJ and 250 m were repeated alongside assessment of plasma creatine kinase (CK) and perceived muscle soreness. At 24 h post-ST 250 m performance decreased significantly (90% CI: 0.3 – 0.7 s), but returned to pre-test values at 48 h. There was a significant decrease in CMJ height at 48 h post ST (90% CI: −0.7 – −4.1 cm). Perceived muscle soreness was significantly greater than baseline at all assessed time points following ST (p < 0.05). There was a significant increase in CK from baseline to 24 h (90% CI: 146 – 390 U/L). High-intensity strength training was observed to adversely affect 250 m rowing ergometer performance after 24 h and coincided with transient muscle damage.

Self-concept organisation and mental toughness in sport

Abstract The present study examines the relationship between individual differences in evaluative self-organisation and mental toughness in sport, proposing that motivation and emotional resiliency (facets of mental toughness) stem from differences in core self. A cross-sectional assessment of 105 athletes competing at a range of performance levels took part in an online study including measures of self-reported mental toughness (Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire; Sheard, M., Golby, J., & van Wersch, A. (2009). Progress towards construct validation of the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ). European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 25(3), 186–193. doi:10.1027/1015-5759.25.3.186) and self-organisation (self-descriptive attribute task; Showers, C. J. (2002). Integration and compartmentalisation: A model of self-structure and self-change. In D. Cervone & W. Mischel (Eds.), Advances in personality science (pp. 271–291). New York, NY: Guilford Press). As predicted, global mental toughness was associated with self-concept positivity, which was particularly high in individuals with positive-integrative self-organisation (individuals who distribute positive and negative self-attributes evenly across multiple selves). Specifically, positive integration was associated with constancy (commitment to goal achievement despite obstacles and the potential for failure), which extends presumably from positive integratives’ emotional stability and drive to resolve negative self-beliefs.

The Cortisol Awakening Response and Resilience in Elite Swimmers

The sports environment is stress-eliciting in that it encapsulates perceived uncontrollability, unpredictability and requires ego-involvement. The HPA axis has been shown (indicated by cortisol release) to respond to anticipated sports competition up to a week prior to the event. Research also alludes to the importance of individual differences, such as optimism and trait perfectionism, in moderating the impact of cortisol upon performance. In total, 41 (male n=27) national (n=38) and international (n=3) swimmers were recruited from northeast England and Australia. Swimmers completed a measure of resilience and also provided buccal saliva swabs, from which total cortisol release prior to and during the event was calculated. Findings revealed that resilience significantly predicted performance and the influence of AUC (cortisol release) upon performance was moderated by resilience. These findings suggest that resilience can influence athletic performance either directly or indirectly, through appraisal (i. e., interpretation of the stressor to be facilitative and non-threatening).

Client perceptions of the MUSCSEL project: a community‐based physical activity programme for patients with mental health problems

The paper provides an evaluation of client perceptions of a community‐based physical activity project (MUSCSEL) in Leeds. Over a period of five months, all newcomers to the project were invited to take part in the evaluation by completing a questionnaire. All were living independently in the community. All 34 respondents were unemployed, and perceived themselves as less active and less fit than the norm for their age and gender. Incidence of smoking was higher than the national average, and the majority of respondents would have liked to be more active than they were, but perceived many barriers. Subsequent interviews (n=17) found that the project increased self‐confidence and self‐esteem, perceived fitness levels and perceived habitual physical activity levels. It also facilitated social contact and enabled the service users to manage their mental health issues better, supporting previous research findings. Further work is needed to follow subjects living independently in the community on a longitudinal basis, to determine the time course of any benefits, particularly over the period of transition from hospital to independent‐living status.