Joanne Butt

The Relationship Between the Use and Effectiveness of Imagery: An Exploratory Investigation

The major purposes of the present investigation were (a) to enhance the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ) by adding an effectiveness component to the already existing frequency component;(b) to assess when, and under what conditions, imagery is being employed by athletes; and (c) to conduct an exploratory analysis of the impact of gender and type of sport on imageryuse. Participants were 523 athletes from both individual and team sports at two NCAA Division I universities. They all completed the SIQ, Imagery Use Questionnaire (IUQ) and anopen-ended questionnaire assessing their imagery use. Results revealed that both the revised SIQ and IUQ had high internal consistency reliability. Results from the IUQ as well as theopen-ended questionnaire, revealed that athletes used imagery predominantly before competition. Open-ended findings revealed that athletes also used imagery in tough/difficult situationswhere pressure was high. Results are discussed in terms of previous imagery and socialization literature, and practical implications as well as future research directions are offered.

Stress in Elite Sports Coaching: Identifying Stressors

This paper presents the first in a series of studies exploring coaches’ experiences of stress within the unique culture of world class sport. The purpose of this study was to gain an in-depth account of the stressors encountered by elite coaches in the United Kingdom. Six male and six female coaches with international experience were interviewed. Transcribed interviews were inductively content analyzed by three independent researchers. Ten higher-order themes emerged, demonstrating that coaches experienced a wide range of stressors (e.g., conflict, pressure and expectation, athlete concerns, competition preparation, isolation). Conflict within the organization emerged as a key theme, indicating that communication skills might be important in helping coaches function effectively as part of a wider organizational team. Findings also highlight the importance of psychological skills training for coaches to help them cope with the diverse demands of world class coaching.

Stress and Coping: A Study of World Class Coaches

This study explored coaches’ responses to stress, the perceived effects of stress, and the coping strategies coaches employed. Transcribed interviews with 12 world class coaches, based in the UK, were inductively content analyzed. A range of themes emerged describing coaches’ responses to stressors and the effects of stress. Specifically, coaches discussed psychological reactions, and suggested that their negative responses to stress could be projected onto their athletes. While structuring and planning was reported as a coping strategy, coaches described a limited use of psychological skills and tended to avoid stressors that provoked strain responses in efforts to manage stress. Results suggest that coaches should be aware of how they respond to stressors and the influence their responses might have on their athletes. Sport psychologists should help coaches to identify and develop the psychological skills and strategies required to cope with the demands of world class coaching.

Identifying factors perceived to influence the development of elite youth football academy players

Abstract Based on the developmental theory presented by Gagné (2009), we examined the factors perceived to influence the development of elite youth football players at a critical stage in their progression to the professional level. Transcribed interviews with ten expert development coaches were inductively and deductively content analysed. Conceptualisation of the data revealed six interrelated higher-order categories that represented the factors perceived to either positively or negatively influence player development. These were: awareness (e.g. self-awareness, awareness of others); resilience (e.g. coping with setbacks, optimistic attitude); goal-directed attributes (e.g. passion, professional attitude); intelligence (e.g. sport intelligence, emotional competence); sport-specific attributes (e.g. coachability, competitiveness); and environmental factors (e.g. significant others, culture of game). In this investigation, awareness emerged as a fundamental and mediating element for understanding how young players are able to transition to the professional level. Collectively, the findings underline the multidimensional nature of talent development and suggest that an intricate combination of stage-specific factors must manifest for gifted young players to translate their potential into excellence. Mechanisms by which academies could be helped to shape the characteristics and conditions associated with effective development are discussed.

Involuntary career termination in sport: a case study of the process of structurally induced failure

Sport can be perceived as one of the contemporary key socializing agencies with which a significant number of children and youth come in to contact. The nature of this contact between the institution of sport and the individual is erratic, leading to the, often abrupt and unforeseen, termination of the individuals sporting career. In this essay, our aim is to draw wider attention to the personal adjustments young athletes undergo during and after their career has been institutionally terminated. Our analysis is embedded in theory as well as empirical, qualitative evidence gathered through semi-structured, long interviews with eight ex-varsity athletes. In shedding light on the personal consequences of structurally induced failure in sport, we seek to approach these issues from a socio-psychological angle and examine specific, personal layers of those via the lived experiences of ‘drop-out’ varsity athletes.1

Factors Underpinning Football Officiating Excellence: Perceptions of English Premier League Referees

The purpose of the present study was to identify factors perceived to underpin football officiating excellence. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to collect data from 15 English Premier League referees. Through inductive content analysis, emerging themes were identified and comprised a variety of physical, environmental, and psychological factors: (a) mental toughness attributes, (b) support networks and services, (c) effective game management qualities, (d) multifaceted pre-match preparation, (e) performance-level enhancement, (f) opportunities to thrive, (g) personal characteristics, and (h) superior physical components. Findings acknowledge theoretical and applied implications for sport psychology professionals operating in elite football officiating.

Collegiate Coaches' Perceptions of Their Goal-Setting Practices: A Qualitative Investigation

The purpose of the present investigation was to assess the perceptions of coaches regarding the process of goal setting using a qualitative methodology. Participants were 14 NCAA collegiate coaches from the American Midwest representing both team and individual sports. All participants were head coaches and were asked to respond to the interview questions in relation to their current head coaching position. Results revealed that coaches employed goal setting extensively for both individual and team goals in practice and competition. In addition, many interesting findings regarding the process of goal setting emerged including (a) coaches tended to set short-term goals although there were some nebulous longterm goals; (b) coaches only inconsistently wrote down their goals; (c) goals were both dictated by coaches and set in collaboration with players with a focus on collaboration; (d) the primary function of goals was to provide direction and focus; (e) goal commitment was related to enjoyment/fun; (f) process, performance, and outcome goals were set but coaches focused on performance and outcome goals; and (g) physical, psychological, and time barriers impeded goal attainment. These findings are discussed in relation to the current empirical/theoretical goal-setting literature and suggestions for best practice by sport psychology researchers are offered.

Effective ways to develop and maintain robust sport-confidence: strategies advocated by sport psychology consultants.

Based on recent evidence, this study identified 10 strategies advocated by sport psychology consultants as effective at developing and maintaining robust sport-confidence in athletes. Due to the studys exploratory nature, qualitative interviews were conducted and content analyzed. Six themes emerged for developing robust sport-confidence and 4 emerged for maintaining robust sport-confidence. Findings reveal a need to develop an athletes signature strengths, increase pressure experienced in training, and identify broad stable sources of confidence to develop robust sport-confidence. Consultants reported that maintaining robust sport-confidence occurs through constant development. Theoretical implications and future research directions are discussed.

A Strengths-Based Consultancy Approach in Elite Sport: Exploring Super-Strengths

There is a lack of literature documenting strengths-based approaches in sport psychology. This study explored how a super-strengths approach has been implemented by sport psychologists (n = 7) and coaches (n = 8), with UK elite athletes. Findings were categorized into 3 general dimensions: defining super-strengths, identification methods, and phases of development. Super-strengths were defined as a strategy for performance, utilizing a potential worlds-best resource to gain a competitive edge. Identification methods were subjective (e.g., asking/observing athletes) and objective (e.g., performance analysis). Participants emphasized 3 development phases: preparation, adaptation and monitoring. Findings offer considerations for implementing a strengths-based approach and future research.

Delivery of Psychological Skills Training to Youngsters

The aim of the present study was to explore sport psychologists’ experiences of working with children and adolescents to understand how they have adapted both content and delivery of psychological skills training when consulting with young athletes. Interviews with 12 experienced sport psychology consultants from the United Kingdom were inductively content analyzed. Four main higher order themes relating to content and delivery emerged: consultancy skills, relating to youngsters, delivery medium, and maintaining engagement. The findings imply that psychologists experience challenges unique to youth populations but also have developed content and delivery strategies to overcome these.