Joanne M. Dickson

Approach and Avoidance Goals and Plans: Their Relationship to Anxiety and Depression

Numerous studies have identified cognitive and affective similarities and differences between anxiety and depression but relatively little empirical research has studied these emotional disturbances from a motivational perspective. This study investigates individual response-variations on approach and avoidance goals and plans. High anxiety (n = 27), high depression (n = 25), mixed (n = 30), and control (n = 30) adolescents selected from a larger school sample completed tasks that measured number and specificity of personal approach and avoidance goals and plans. High depression and mixed (depression, anxiety) adolescents generated fewer approach goals (but not more avoidance goals), fewer approach plans, more avoidance plans and were less specific in forming their goals and plans than controls. High anxiety adolescents generated more avoidance goals (but not fewer approach goals), more avoidance plans, fewer approach plans, and were less specific in forming approach but not avoidance goals and plans than controls. Overall the findings suggest that approach and avoidance motivational aspects are important in understanding anxiety and depression.

Brief Report Anxiety, depression and approach and avoidance goals

Numerous studies have outlined similarities and differences between anxiety and depression, focusing mainly on affect and cognition. The present study aimed to extend this line of research to include motivation. There are theoretical grounds (e.g., Gray, 1982) for expecting anxiety to be related primarily to motivational systems underlying avoidance whereas depression would be expected to include elements of both high avoidance and low approach motivation. The study & examined the relationships between approach goals and avoidance goals and anxiety and depression. A school sample of adolescents (N = 144) completed an open‐ended task that required participants to write down as many personal approach and avoidance goals that came to mind within a short time period. Participants were also asked to describe the most important consequence associated with either achieving or not achieving each of their goals, which were then classified as either approach or avoidance consequences. They also completed a self‐report questionnaire asking about approach and avoidance achievement goals. The findings were consistent across measures. In line with predictions, anxiety was associated with measures of avoidance goals but not approach goals. Depression was related to a deficit in approach goals but, against prediction, showed no relationship to measures of avoidance goals. Anxiety and depression can be clearly distinguished in terms of their patterns of goal motivation.

To Approach or Avoid Alcohol? Automatic and Self-Reported Motivational Tendencies in Alcohol Dependence

Background: Motivational conflict is central to alcohol dependence, with patients reporting motivation to limit their drinking at the same time as urges to drink alcohol. In addition, dual process models of addiction emphasise the power of automatic cognitive processes, particularly automatic approach responses elicited by alcohol-related cues, as determinants of drinking behavior. We aimed to examine the strength of automatic and self-reported alcohol approach and avoidance tendencies among alcohol-dependent inpatients relative to matched controls. Methods: A total of 63 alcohol-dependent patients undergoing detoxification and 64 light-drinking controls completed a stimulus-response compatibility (SRC) task, which assesses the speed of categorization of alcohol-related pictures by making symbolic approach and avoidance movements. We also included modified versions of the SRC task to assess automatic motivational conflict, that is, strong approach and avoidance tendencies elicited simultaneously by alcohol-related cues. Results: There were no differences between alcohol-dependent patients and controls on the SRC task, although individual differences in the quantity of alcohol consumed before entering treatment were significantly positively correlated with the strength of approach (but not avoidance) tendencies elicited by alcohol-related cues. Automatic approach tendencies were also positively correlated with self-reported “approach” inclinations and negatively correlated with self-reported “avoidance” inclinations. Conclusions: Although alcohol-dependent patients and matched controls did not differ on automatic approach and avoidance tendencies elicited by alcohol-related cues, individual differences in the quantity of alcohol consumed before entering treatment were associated with the strength of automatic approach tendencies elicited by alcohol cues.

Depressed people are not less motivated by personal goals but are more pessimistic about attaining them

Despite its theoretical importance, personal goal motivation has rarely been examined in clinical depression. Here we investigate whether clinically depressed persons (n = 23) differ from never-depressed persons (n = 26) on number of freely generated approach and avoidance goals, appraisals of these goals, and reasons why these goals would and would not be achieved. Participants listed approach and avoidance goals separately and generated explanations for why they would (pro) and would not (con) achieve their most important approach and avoidance goals, before rating the importance, likelihood, and perceived control of goal outcomes. Counter to hypothesis, depressed persons did not differ from never-depressed controls on number of approach or avoidance goals, or on the perceived importance of these goals. However, compared to never-depressed controls, depressed individuals gave lower likelihood judgments for desirable approach goal outcomes, tended to give higher likelihood judgments for undesirable to-be-avoided goal outcomes, and gave lower ratings of their control over goal outcomes. Furthermore, although controls generated significantly more pro than con reasons for goal achievement, depressed participants did not. These results suggest that depressed persons do not lack valued goals but are more pessimistic about their likelihood, controllability, and reasons for successful goal attainment.

Factors influencing the resilience of carers of individuals with dementia

Most individuals with dementia live in the community, receiving care from family or lay carers. Carers’ wellbeing, and the quality of the care they provide, depends on their resilience in the face of the challenges associated with caring for someone with dementia. However, factors associated with carers’ resilience are not yet fully understood. The aim of this review is to present a narrative synthesis of factors, materials and resources associated with carers’ resilience. Electronic and hand searches identified relevant published literature, which was narratively synthesized. A framework consisting of three inter-related domains of factors influencing carers’ resilience emerged, encompassing: social and cultural factors; properties of the care relationship; and carers’ psychological factors. Holistic assessment based on this framework can help practitioners to identify vulnerable carers and to target help on factors that help to make them vulnerable but that are amenable to change.

Alcohol dependent patients have weak negative rather than strong positive implicit alcohol associations

RationaleAlcohol dependence is characterised by motivational conflict (or ambivalence) in controlled cognitive processes, but it is unclear if ambivalence also exists within automatic cognitive processes, and if ambivalence operates between controlled and automatic processes.ObjectiveTo investigate ambivalence operating within and between controlled and automatic processes in alcohol dependence.MethodAlcohol-dependent patients who had recently completed inpatient alcohol detoxification (N = 47) and social drinking controls (N = 40) completed unipolar implicit association tests and self-report measures of alcohol approach and avoidance motivation and alcohol outcome expectancies.ResultsAs predicted, both positive and negative alcohol outcome expectancies were stronger in alcohol-dependent patients compared to controls, indicative of ambivalence. Groups did not differ on implicit alcohol-positive associations, but alcohol-dependent participants had significantly weaker alcohol-negative associations than controls. Regression analyses revealed that implicit negative associations accounted for unique variance in group membership after controlling for alcohol outcome expectancies.ConclusionsOur findings demonstrate that alcohol dependent patients possess weak automatic alcohol-negative associations but not strong automatic alcohol-positive associations, and they suggest the presence of conflict between controlled and automatic processes with regard to negative alcohol cognitions.

Reduced Specificity of Personal Goals and Explanations for Goal Attainment in Major Depression

Objectives Overgeneralization has been investigated across many domains of cognitive functioning in major depression, including the imagination of future events. However, it is unknown whether this phenomenon extends to representations of personal goals, which are important in structuring long-term behaviour and providing meaning in life. Furthermore, it is not clear whether depressed individuals provide less specific explanations for and against goal attainment. Method Clinically depressed individuals and controls generated personally important approach and avoidance goals, and then generated explanations why they would and would not achieve these goals. Goals and causal explanations were subsequently coded as either specific or general. Results Compared to controls, depressed individuals did not generate significantly fewer goals or causal explanations for or against goal attainment. However, compared to controls, depressed individuals generated less specific goals, less specific explanations for approach (but not avoidance) goal attainment, and less specific explanations for goal nonattainment. Significance Our results suggest that motivational deficits in depression may stem partly from a reduction in the specificity of personal goal representations and related cognitions that support goal-directed behaviour. Importantly, the findings have the potential to inform the ongoing development of psychotherapeutic approaches in the treatment of depression.

Attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help among Chinese students at a UK university

Abstract Aim: In this study we aimed to investigate whether Chinese international and British home students at a university in the United Kingdom differed in their attitudes towards seeking psychological help. Method: The total sample comprised 323 participants. Participants completed measures to assess their attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help (recognition of need for psychological help, stigma tolerance, interpersonal openness, confidence in mental health practitioners). Results: Chinese students reported significantly less interpersonal openness than that reported by British students. Contrary to prediction, however, no significant group differences were found on any of the other mental health attitudes (i.e. recognition of need for psychological help, confidence in mental health practitioners or stigma tolerance). Within-group contrasts also showed that Chinese students reported lower scores on interpersonal openness than on stigma tolerance and confidence in mental health practit...

Journey into and through an early detection of psychosis service: the subjective experience of persons at risk of developing psychosis

Aim: This study aimed to explore how persons who have been assessed as being at risk of developing psychosis make sense of and understand their experiences, using a qualitative approach.

A Meta-Analysis of the Prevalence of Different Functions of Non-Suicidal Self-Injury

BACKGROUND A broad variety of different functions can underlie acts of Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI). Whilst research so far has identified many of the commonly reported functions, no reliable estimates of prevalence currently exist for these different NSSI functions. Understanding the prevalence of NSSI functions represents a key to better understanding the phenomenology of NSSI and addressing the differing needs of the NSSI population. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of the prevalence of NSSI functions in community and clinical samples. METHOD A literature search of electronic databases PsycINFO, Medline, and Web of Science from date of inception to March 2017 was undertaken. A pre-specified framework for categorising different functions of NSSI was used to collate data from across studies. A random-effects meta-analysis of prevalence was then undertaken on these data. RESULTS Intrapersonal functions (66-81%), and especially those concerning emotion regulation were most commonly reported by individuals who engage in NSSI (63-78%). Interpersonal functions (e.g., expressing distress) were less common (33-56%). LIMITATIONS The review was limited to English-language articles. Reviewed articles were inconsistent in their measurement of NSSI. Inconsistency within pooled prevalence estimates was high when moderators were not accounted for. CONCLUSIONS Findings indicate that intrapersonal functions of NSSI are most common and are present for the majority of participants. This finding supports dominant emotion-regulation models of NSSI, and the use of interventions that work to improve emotion-regulation ability. However, interpersonal functions remain endorsed by a substantial portion of participants.