Joe F. Pittman

Toward a Microprocess Perspective on Adolescent Identity Development An Identity Control Theory Approach

An abundance of research has been conducted on identityformation during adolescence, however, very little is bwwn about the processes that actually drive identity development. Furthermore, limited attention has been paid to the active influence of relationships with parents and peers on identity. Recentl, control theory has-been recognized as a useful framewor*from which to examine the microprocesses involved in identityformation. The purpose of this article is to describe identity development from this microprocess perspective and to extend the Grotevant model of identity formation processes. When applied to identity, control theory brings attennon to such intrapersonal factors as identity standards and self-perceptions, and such interpersonal factors as reflected appraisals and social behaviors as major contrbutors to the process of identity development. Implicationsfor using identty control theory to elaborate the identity statuses, to understand reciprocal identity influences in interpersonal relationships, and to drive methodologies used to exanune identity processes, are offered.

Family Contributions to Work Commitment.

This study is designed to test an empirical model that hypothesizes linkages between organizational support for family and job commitments of personnel. The data were collected from probability samples of military personnel and analyzed by means of LISREL. The results indicate that the job commitment of these personnel is significantly related to organizational support for families and to the support provided by the immediate family.

Adolescent Prosocial Values and Self-Efficacy in Relation to Delinquency, Risky Sexual Behavior, and Drug Use

The present study examined relations of prosocial values and three measures of self-efficacy as predictors of delinquency, risky sex, and drug use in a sample of 2,146 racially diverse adolescents. It also explored moderating effects on the relations between self-efficacy and values on the three problem behaviors. Adolescents with strong prosocial values and self-efficacy reported fewer problem behaviors. Implications for program development and implementation based on differential needs by race and gender are discussed.

Conflict resolution strategies and marital distress as mediating factors in the link between witnessing interparental violence and wife battering.

This study investigated the mediating effects of men’s ineffective conflict resolution strategies and marital distress on the intergenerational transmission of wife battering. Subjects were 1836 men who participated in the Second National Family Violence Survey. Results indicated that men who witnessed interparental violence were more likely to use ineffective conflict resolution strategies. The use of ineffective conflict resolution strategies increased men’s likelihood of encountering marital distress and engaging in wife battering. Contrary to the expectations of the study, results also revealed a direct link between witnessing interparental violence and wife battering.

Identity Processes in Poor Adolescents: Exploring the Linkages Between Economic Disadvantage and the Primary Task of Adolescence

Despite an abundance of literature on the topic of adolescent identity formation, little is known about the relationship between socioeconomic status and identity processes, particularly potential effects of poverty on identity formation. Three correlates of poverty-derogatory self-relevant information (in the form of social stigma, marginalization, and disparate treatment), limitations in opportunity structure, and excessive stress-are hypothesized to circumscribe identity processes in poor adolescents. We present a theory that extends current and historical thinking about identity, culminating in an attempt to explain how and through what processes these correlates might impact identity formation.

Stress as a Driver of the Allocation of Housework

This study examines the allocation of housework dynamically. Over 10 weeks, a small sample of young married couples used daily logs to report housework time in 6 tasks and the levels of stress they experienced at home and in other role settings. Stress was hypothesized to drive time allocations by spilling over from one setting to another or by crossing over from one spouse to the other. Results supported the hypothesis. For both spouses, less housework followed both high stress from outside the home and low, home-based stress. Gender differences were seen with the crossover of stress. In response to their partners home-based stress, husbands did more housework, but wives did less. When their partners stress originated outside the home, mens contributions did not change, but women contributed more. Housework time is not the product of a static contract but a dynamic decision-making process sensitive to the social environment. For over 30 years, researchers have been collecting and interpreting data on the allocation of housework as if these allocations were based on a static contract. Typical theoretical models have emphasized role relationships (e.g., Blood & Wolfe, 1960; Perry-Jenkins & Crouter, 1990; Shelton, 1990), resource discrepancies between marital partners (e.g., Ross, 1987; Spitze, 1986), gender (Ahrentzen, Levine, & Michelson, 1989; Antill & Cotton, 1988; Douthitt, 1989), or other relatively stable attributes of a couple or its members. The models apparently have assumed a division of housework based on an agreement, spoken or unspoken, that changed little with time. Accepting this theoretical assumption had critical implications for the measurement strategies employed when attempting to predict or explain the allocation of housework. Measurement techniques have relied, for the most part, on rather gross estimates of responsibility or time contributions to housework. Because measures have been broad and imprecise, their use has contributed to the tendency to consider housework in static terms, while also preventing the employment of analysis strategies capable of treating the allocation of housework dynamically. Current and classic research show three dominant methods, each too gross to detect dynamic allocations. One asks about the relative level of responsibility for the performance of housework in a couple (e.g., Blood & Wolfe, 1960). This approach focuses on whether responsibilities for tasks or their performance are divided equally or require more of one partner than the other. A second strategy assesses time investments in housework within a particular time period (e.g., Rexroat & Shehan, 1987). The time frame evaluated is often the typical week (Antill & Cotton, 1988; Coverman, 1985; Pleck, 1985; Spitze, 1986; Spitze & Ward, 1995). Sometimes housework is defined broadly; other times it is defined in terms of specific tasks. This second approach adds precision beyond the first because, through its use, researchers can report on relative performance (or responsibility) as well as who does how much of what. Studies sometimes examine time estimates from both partners (e.g., Coltrane & Ishii-Kuntz, 1992), but some use the reports of only one spouse, typically wives (e.g., Blair & Johnson, 1992). The third common methodology uses time diaries. Diaries tend to be used less to study the allocation of housework than the more broadly conceived activities of daily life (e.g., Juster Stafford, 1985; but Berk, 1985, is an exception). Nevertheless, the precision of time diary data for the measurement of housework is greater than the gross estimates of housework completed in a typical week. Yet, most time diary studies collect data for only 1 weekday and I weekend day, and these data are used to construct a synthetic week. Although the data are more detailed and closer to a true representation of the actual occurrences of the day on which they were collected, they are still too gross to show a dynamic process if one exists. …

Adolescents on the Move Adjustment to Family Relocation

Three forms of post-relocation adjustment: (a) personal, (b) external, and (c) family, are predicted in a sample of 882 highly mobile Air Force adolescents using Hills ABC-X crisis model, which focuses on objective aspects of a stressor, coping resources, and perceptions of the stressful situation. The three forms of adjustment were interrelated. Perceptions of the stressful situation were most important to external and personal adjustment, although social resources predicted family adjustment.

Evaluation of a statewide youth-focused relationships education curriculum

Romantic relationships matter for adolescents. Experiences in romantic relationships facilitate key areas of personal and interpersonal development, however, problems in romantic relationships and lack of positive role models can lead to increased risk of developing unhealthy relationship patterns that can persist into adulthood. The goals of this applied research project were to examine the effectiveness of a youth-focused relationships education curriculum, and to use the knowledge gained to inform practices in relationships education for adolescents. Findings from pre and post-intervention assessments and from two follow-up surveys provide evidence of program success and offer key insights for the development of an effective model of relationships education tailored for adolescents.

Identity and intimacy during adolescence: connections among identity styles, romantic attachment and identity commitment.

Integration of adult attachment and psychosocial development theories suggests that adolescence is a time when capacities for romantic intimacy and identity formation are co-evolving. The current study addressed direct, indirect and moderated associations among identity and romantic attachment constructs with a diverse sample of 2178 middle adolescents. Identity styles were found to have unique and direct associations with identity commitment. Attachment anxiety showed only indirect associations and attachment avoidance had both direct and indirect associations with identity commitment. Tests of moderation revealed that gender, race and relationship status had no influence on the direct associations of identity styles or romantic attachment with identity commitment. Few differences in association strength among identity styles and romantic attachment emerged for gender or race. However, the differences found for relationship status suggested that relationship experiences adolescents bring to their exploration of identity and intimacy matter for how these two areas of development articulate.

What Adolescents Bring to and Learn from Relationship Education Classes: Does Social Address Matter?

The current study examined the effectiveness of a youth-focused relationship education curriculum in a sample of 1,430 adolescents attending health classes across 39 public high schools. The evaluation consisted of pre, post, and 1-year follow-up data collections for intervention and control samples. Growth curve models were fit to test the general effects of the curriculum and to examine the influence of social address indicators. Results indicated that the intervention group, but not the control group, changed in the desired direction in terms of the faulty relationship beliefs and the relationship skills that were the focus of this study. Desired improvements on the faulty relationship beliefs occurred independent of social address, but desired improvements in conflict management skills appeared only for the less socially or economically advantaged groups (e.g., lower socioeconomic status and minority status). Participants living in stepfamilies also significantly improved their perceived skills. Adolescents living in single-parent family structures appeared to benefit least from the program. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.