Joerg Melzheimer

The global decline of cheetah Acinonyx jubatus and what it means for conservation

Significance Here, we compile and present the most comprehensive data available on cheetah distribution and status. Our analysis shows dramatic declines of cheetah across its distributional range. Most cheetah occur outside protected areas, where they are exposed to multiple threats, but there is little information on population status. Simulation modeling shows that, where cheetah population growth rates are suppressed outside protected areas, extinction risk increases markedly. This result can be generalized to other “protection-reliant” species, and a decision tree is provided to improve their extinction risk estimation. Ultimately, the persistence of protection-reliant species depends on their survival outside and inside protected areas and requires a holistic approach to conservation that engages rather than alienates local communities. Establishing and maintaining protected areas (PAs) are key tools for biodiversity conservation. However, this approach is insufficient for many species, particularly those that are wide-ranging and sparse. The cheetah Acinonyx jubatus exemplifies such a species and faces extreme challenges to its survival. Here, we show that the global population is estimated at ∼7,100 individuals and confined to 9% of its historical distributional range. However, the majority of current range (77%) occurs outside of PAs, where the species faces multiple threats. Scenario modeling shows that, where growth rates are suppressed outside PAs, extinction rates increase rapidly as the proportion of population protected declines. Sensitivity analysis shows that growth rates within PAs have to be high if they are to compensate for declines outside. Susceptibility of cheetah to rapid decline is evidenced by recent rapid contraction in range, supporting an uplisting of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List threat assessment to endangered. Our results are applicable to other protection-reliant species, which may be subject to systematic underestimation of threat when there is insufficient information outside PAs. Ultimately, conserving many of these species necessitates a paradigm shift in conservation toward a holistic approach that incentivizes protection and promotes sustainable human–wildlife coexistence across large multiple-use landscapes.

Immunogenetic Variation and Differential Pathogen Exposure in Free-Ranging Cheetahs across Namibian Farmlands

Background Genes under selection provide ecologically important information useful for conservation issues. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and II genes are essential for the immune defence against pathogens from intracellular (e.g. viruses) and extracellular (e.g. helminths) origins, respectively. Serosurvey studies in Namibian cheetahs (Acinonyx juabuts) revealed higher exposure to viral pathogens in individuals from north-central than east-central regions. Here we examined whether the observed differences in exposure to viruses influence the patterns of genetic variation and differentiation at MHC loci in 88 free-ranging Namibian cheetahs. Methodology/Principal Findings Genetic variation at MHC I and II loci was assessed through single-stranded conformation polymorphism (SSCP) analysis and sequencing. While the overall allelic diversity did not differ, we observed a high genetic differentiation at MHC class I loci between cheetahs from north-central and east-central Namibia. No such differentiation in MHC class II and neutral markers were found. Conclusions/Significance Our results suggest that MHC class I variation mirrors the variation in selection pressure imposed by viruses in free-ranging cheetahs across Namibian farmland. This is of high significance for future management and conservation programs of this species.

Diversity and Evolutionary Patterns of Immune Genes in Free-Ranging Namibian Leopards (Panthera pardus pardus)

The genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are a key component of the mammalian immune system and have become important molecular markers for fitness-related genetic variation in wildlife populations. Currently, no information about the MHC sequence variation and constitution in African leopards exists. In this study, we isolated and characterized genetic variation at the adaptively most important region of MHC class I and MHC class II-DRB genes in 25 free-ranging African leopards from Namibia and investigated the mechanisms that generate and maintain MHC polymorphism in the species. Using single-stranded conformation polymorphism analysis and direct sequencing, we detected 6 MHC class I and 6 MHC class II-DRB sequences, which likely correspond to at least 3 MHC class I and 3 MHC class II-DRB loci. Amino acid sequence variation in both MHC classes was higher or similar in comparison to other reported felids. We found signatures of positive selection shaping the diversity of MHC class I and MHC class II-DRB loci during the evolutionary history of the species. A comparison of MHC class I and MHC class II-DRB sequences of the leopard to those of other felids revealed a trans-species mode of evolution. In addition, the evolutionary relationships of MHC class II-DRB sequences between African and Asian leopard subspecies are discussed.

Ecology of Free-Ranging Cheetahs

Considerable research has been conducted on cheetah ecology. Cheetahs can exist in a wide variety of habitats from thick scrub to open grassland, and habitat selection is based on a variety of factors, including visibility, prey density, and avoidance of competitively superior predators. Cheetahs naturally occur at low densities and require a prey base of small to medium-sized ungulates that can be consumed rapidly, minimizing the risks for cheetahs of being detected by larger carnivores that can usurp their kills. Cheetahs exhibit wide ranging movements and large home ranges—over 2000 km 2 in some areas. Reported densities generally range from 0.3 to 3.0 adult cheetahs per 100 km 2 . The species distribution, density, and activity patterns are impacted by human activities and the presence of larger carnivores. Understanding cheetah habitat requirements and movement ecology, especially pertaining to long-distance movements, will become progressively more important as the cheetah’s range becomes increasingly fragmented.

Effects of host traits and land-use changes on the gut microbiota of the Namibian black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas)

ABSTRACT Host traits and environmental factors drive the natural variation in gut microbiota, and disruption in homeostasis can cause infections and chronic diseases. African wildlife is increasingly facing human‐induced agricultural habitats, which also amplifies the contact probability with livestock with unknown consequences for wildlife gut microbiotas and the risk of transmission of potentially pathogenic bacteria. We applied high‐throughput sequencing of bacterial 16S rRNA genes and microsatellite genotyping to investigate the impact of host traits and habitat use on the gut microbiotas of black‐backed jackals (Canis mesomelas). This abundant carnivore inhabits livestock and game farms in central Namibia and is often persecuted as pathogen reservoir and vector. We further compared the gut microbiotas of black‐backed jackals to other wild and domestic carnivores, herbivores and an omnivore, to disentangle the effects of environment, host species and dietary preference. In black‐backed jackals, intrinsic host traits had a stronger impact in shaping the host‐bacteria relationship than environmental factors. Nevertheless, the abundance of bacterial operational taxonomic units (OTUs) differed in individuals from livestock and game farms for specific bacterial genera such as Lactobacillus and Clostridium. We found, however, no evidence that black‐backed jackals harbour abnormal levels of OTUs related to potential bacterial pathogens or that livestock farming has a negative impact on their health. We present here the first study investigating simultaneously the impact of host traits and environmental factors on gut microbiotas of a wildlife carnivore that occurs in a human‐modified habitat.

Sex and species differences of stress markers in sympatric cheetahs and leopards in Namibia

Physiological stress markers may provide valuable insight for our understanding of costs of given life-history strategies or of wildlife health condition, most importantly in case of threatened species. In the last decade, there has been growing interest in the ecological relevance of cellular oxidative stress, which would provide complimentary information to that obtained by the classic analyses of glucocorticoid hormones. In this study, we analysed the sex and species variation of five blood-based markers of oxidative status, both molecular oxidative damage and antioxidant protection, in sympatric cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and leopards (Panthera pardus) living on Namibian farmlands. Both these terrestrial carnivores are classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. We found that female cheetahs had significantly higher serum reactive oxygen metabolites of non-protein origin and lower glutathione peroxidase activity in whole blood than both male and female leopards and male cheetahs. We also found that cheetahs and leopards differed in the association between the two antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase. Correlations among oxidative status markers were stronger in female cheetahs than leopards or male cheetahs. Our results suggest that female cheetahs are more sensitive to local sources of stress. Our work did not corroborate the assumption that two species with different life histories consistently differ in key physiological traits.

Capture, Care, Collaring, and Collection of Biomedical Samples in Free-Ranging Cheetahs

Live capture, tagging, and sampling of free-ranging animals are important means of acquiring health, genetic, and ecological data for wildlife conservation and management. We summarize best-practice procedures for capture, anesthesia, handling, sample collection, and marking of cheetahs. In all capture events involving anesthesia, data collection should be maximized, such as preferentially deploying global positioning system (instead of radio) collars, collecting biomedical samples, and recording morphometric measurements. Standardization of protocols, data collection, and the methods used to individually identify animals are essential and facilitate comparative and collaborative data analyses. We provide procedural guidelines and online links for protocols and data-recording sheets that we recommend for routine use in cheetah capture and processing operations.

Behavior and Communication of Free-Ranging Cheetahs

Cheetahs have unique social and mating systems, as well as hunting techniques. Males are either territory holders defending small territories or floaters roaming in large, overlapping, undefended home ranges. Both spatial tactics are adopted by solitary males or coalitions of males. Females are solitary unless accompanied by offspring. They give birth to two to six cubs, which are hidden in a lair for the first 2 months. In ecosystems with other large predator species, cheetahs adopt several predator avoidance behaviors. Nevertheless, cubs can suffer from high mortality by lions and spotted hyenas, and adult cheetahs may lose kills to kleptoparasites. Cheetahs primarily hunt abundant, small to medium sized prey animals using high-speed chases over short distances. They mainly communicate with vocalization and olfaction, often using prominent landmarks for scent marking. Given the increasing human pressure on carnivores, conservation efforts would benefit from behavioral data in human inhabited areas.

Coping with intrasexual behavioral differences: Capture-recapture abundance estimation of male cheetah

Abstract Population estimates are a fundamental requirement of ecology and conservation. While capture–recapture models are an established method for producing such estimates, their assumption of homogeneous capture probabilities is problematic given that heterogeneity in individual capture probability is inherent to most species. Such variation must be accounted for by abundance models; otherwise, biased estimates are risked. Here, we investigate the performance of four types of heterogeneity models for estimating abundance of male cheetah Acinonyx jubatus, a species with two distinct spatial tactics of territorial and nonterritorial (floater) males. The differences in spatial movements of territory holders and floaters are expected to result in intrasexual heterogeneous capture probabilities. Four heterogeneity models were used to model male abundance at five territories in central Namibia; (a) a spatial tactic model, (b) a finite mixture model, both run in program MARK, (c) a floater‐only model, and (d) a heterogeneity Mh model, both run in the program CAPTURE. Camera trap data of cheetah, taken at frequently visited marking trees, were used to derive true abundance. Model results were compared to the true abundance to assess the accuracy of estimates. Only models (a), (b), and (c) were able to consistently produce accurate results. Mixture models do not require prior knowledge regarding spatial tactic of males, which might not always be available. Therefore, we recommend such models as the preferred model type for cheetahs. Results highlight the potential for mixture models in overcoming the challenges of capture probability heterogeneity and in particular their use with species where intrasexual behavioral differences exist.