Johann Koller

Ancient materials analysis of a pharaonic embalming tar

Details of mummification techniques used in dynastic Egypt have emerged from writings in subsequent ancient texts, in which the application of oils (kedros, cedrium) derived from the cedar tree have been described by Herodotus (490–425 bc) and by Pliny the Elder (ad 23/24–79). But scholars have since argued that these products were prepared from juniper trees and not from cedar — an assertion that is widely accepted by Egyptologists but which has never been verified by chemical analysis. Here we use gas chromatography to analyse the constituents of a sample of unused entombed embalming material from 1500 bc at a site in Deir el-Bahari, Egypt, and find that its components probably originated from the cedar tree. We also identify one component, guaiacol, as having notable preservative properties.

Embalming was used in Old Kingdom

Our knowledge of the conservation techniques used in the Old Kingdom of ancient Egypt is limited. Examinations of a clavicle fragment of the mummy of Idu II, secretary general of the pine wood trade office (2150 ± 50 BC), revealed saturation with a wealth of sodium and wood tar compounds, many of which were highly antiseptic as no microbial contamination was noticed. This pretreatment had ensured the preservation of bone alkaline phosphatase in an enzymically and immunologically active form. This extends the use of embalming to one thousand years earlier than previously thought.

Peer Reviewed: Embalming In The Old Kingdom Of Pharaonic Egypt

Controversy exists over whether embalming was already being performed in the Old Kingdom in the course of mummifying the deceased.

Zn2Mg alkaline phosphatase in an early ptolemeic mummy.

Bone samples of a ptolemeic mummy have been employed to study the mode of conservation on the intactness of Zn2Mg alkaline phosphatase in both structure and catalytic activity. A protein of Mr = 190 ± 10 kDa being identical to the 200 kDa enzyme of fresh human bones was successfully isolated. Regardless of age 200 kDa protein bands and a distinct sub unit at 60 kDa were seen in SDS-PAGE electrophoresis. The 200 kDa band was also monitored by activity staining. The specific activity was 120 mU/mg and 65% of the respective activity obtained in the identical preparation using fresh human tibia or rib. The enzymic activity was inhibited in the presence of 1,10-phenanthroline and ʟ-homoarginine. Radiocarbon dating supported the assignment of the mummy to the early ptolemeic period. Among the many bactericidal and fungicidal components employed for mummification were aromatic alcohols, mono-and sesquiterpenes. Pistachio resin was the major balm resin used. The microbiological sterility of the bone surface was ascertained by independent bacterial and fungal examinations

Effective Mummification Compounds Used in Pharaonic Egypt: Reactivity on Bone Alkaline Phosphatase

In Pharaonic Egypt from the Old Kingdom up to the Ptolemaic Period the deceased were pre-treated in the course of the mummification process using a wealth of embalming components including resins and many different wood tars. GC/MS studies allowed the elucidation of a great number of clearly separated compounds found in the ancient embalming material. Phenols, guaiacols, naphthalenes, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenoids, oxidised diterpene resin acids and triterpenoids were noticed. These results and particularly the detection of an unused embalming material shed some new light on the possible way as to how the different embalming materials might have been prepared and applied. It was striking to see the accordance of the present data with the well-known treatises by Herodotus (490-425 B. C.) and by Pliny the Elder (23/24-79 A. C.). The impact of the historical observations on modern science and in return the dramatic promotion of ancient texts stimulated by the present study is intriguing. An enzyme, alkaline phosphatase, bound inside mummified bones was a useful tool to reveal the efficacy of the embalming materials. Initial data showed that alkaline phosphatase isolated from embalmed bones from the Old Kingdom and the Ptolemaic Period was significantly more abundant and displayed a higher activity compared to the properties of the corresponding enzyme from non-treated mummified bones. Additionally, in a model study porcine ribs were pre-treated with four selected embalming compounds - guaiacol, limonene, α-pinene and p-cymene - and subsequently air-dried. Among the four selected compounds guaiacol was the most reactive species in the course of the preservation process. The specific activity of bone alkaline phosphatase rose 12-fold compared to that of the control. The enzyme itself remained unharmed as the observed relative molecular mass was surprisingly identical with the contemporary enzyme. It was again striking that the guaiacol derivatives were richly abundant in the unused embalming material mentioned above.