John C. Brigham

Cross-Racial Identification

This article reviews the research on differential recognition for own-versus other-race faces. A meta-analysis of 14 samples revealed that the magnitude of the own-race bias is similar for both Black and White subjects, accounting for about 10o of the variance in recognition accuracy. There is a considerable consistency across studies, indicating that memory for own-race faces is superior to memory for other-race faces. Both Black and White subjects exhibited own-race bias in 79%0 of the samples reviewed.

The influence of retrieval processes in verbal overshadowing

Recent studies of eyewitness memory have observed deleterious effects of producing a verbal description on later identification accuracy of a previously viewed face, an effect termedverbal overshadowing (Schooler & Engstler-Schooler, 1990). The present research investigated whether the phenomenon of verbal overshadowing may be constrained by variation in participants’ initial retrieval processes, such that verbalization of a previously viewed stimulus could produce either positive or negative influences on subsequent attempts at recollection. To assess the validity of this hypothesis, we manipulated participants’ response criterion during the verbal description task. As predicted, variation in response criterion significantly influenced not only the quality of the description generated but also accuracy on a subsequent identification task. This retrieval-based effect was found to persist despite either a postdescription delay (Experiment 1) or source-monitoring instructions at the time of the identification task (Experiment 2). We conclude that retrieval-based processes exert a powerful influence over the accuracy of verbalization and subsequent identification of a target face.

The effect of training in Criteria-Based Content Analysis on the ability to detect deception in adults

The Criteria-Based Content Analysis (CBCA) technique has been proposed as a way to differentiate truth from falsehood in interviews of children. We studied adults, utilizing 14 of the 19 CBCA criteria. In a 2×2 design, 114 students estimated the truthfulness of the statements of 12 adults; 6 were true and 6 described an invented traumatic personal experience. Subjects viewed a videotape or read a written transcript; half were trained in CBCA and half were not. Trained subjects who saw videotapes performed significantly better than chance and were significantly more accurate than each of the other 3 groups. For the trained subjects, 10 of the 14 CBCA criteria yielded significant differences in the predicted direction between evaluations of truthful and invented statements.

Own-Race Bias in Lineup Construction

The lineup identification of a suspect is often a critical stage in a criminal investigation. One factor which may affect the fairness of a lineup is bias on the part of the person constructing the lineup. the “own-race bias,” the tendency of individuals to perceive more similarity in the appearance of other-race members than in their own, may affect lineup development. Black subjects and white subjects were asked to construct lineups using both black and white “suspects.” On three of four measures, their behavior was very similar while making white lineups but different on black lineups. Relative to their performance on white lineups, white subjects became less selective on black lineups but black subjects became even more selective on black lineups. Both groups displayed own-race bias by being more selective about own-race photos than other-race photos. This lessening of selectivity may make lineups constructed by cross-race lineup constructors less fair than lineups constructed by own-race lineup constructors.

What Is Forensic Psychology, Anyway?

The issue of how “forensic psychology” is defined has taken on a new urgency in the context of an application to have forensic psychology designated a “specialty” by the American Psychological Association. To provide a historical perspective, I briefly review early attempts to apply psychological concepts to legal issues, beginning with the McNaughten trial in England in 1843. I then review current conceptualizations of forensic psychology, which have either a broad focus on all psychology–law interactions or focus more narrowly on clinical applications to the legal system. Potential advantages and disadvantages of each conceptualization are briefly discussed. After touching upon the major differences in the “cultures” of psychology and of law, I discuss three law-related areas of contemporary controversy: use of clinically based evidence in the courtroom, “recovered” memories of child abuse, and the use of the criteria-based content analysis technique to evaluate childrens claims of sexual abuse. Issues concerning the education and training of psychology–law scholars and practitioners are briefly surveyed. I conclude that a broad conceptualization of forensic psychology is important in terms of relevant ethical standards, but that a more narrow distinction that differentiates between clinicians and researchers or legal scholars also is useful.

Age differences in criteria-based content analysis scores in typical child sexual abuse interviews

Abstract Criteria-Based Content Analysis (CBCA) by Steller and Koehnken [Psychological methods in criminal investigation and evidence (1989) 217. New York: Springer.] is used to help determine the veracity of allegations of child sexual abuse by reference to criteria theorized to be present more often in true statements. Studies generally show that older children meet more criteria, indicating potential problems in applying CBCA equally well across the age range. The present study examined 104 actual child sexual abuse interviews with children age 2–14 years (M=6.5). Two trained raters, blind to the childrens ages, evaluated each interview for the original 19 CBCA criteria. Data were coded using various methods, some of which gave children credit for reporting criteria spontaneously or when prompted by the interviewer. For all coding methods, age was significantly correlated with 12 or more criteria, and with total CBCA scores. The youngest children never reported seven criteria, even when interviewer prompting was taken into account. Therefore, many of the criteria may not be useful in typical interviews with children across a wide age range, because they either are rarely present or they are highly correlated with age.

The effects of hypnosis, context reinstatement, and anxiety on eyewitness memory

The effects of hypnosis, context reinstatement, and motivational instructions on accuracy of recall for factual information and facial recognition accuracy following a stressful event were assessed. None of the three techniques had a significant effect on factual memory or susceptibility to suggestion as assessed by true-false and multiple-choice tests. However, participants high in hypnotic susceptibility showed somewhat better memory on the true-false test, and hypnosis affected performance on the two photograph line-ups. In addition, hypnosis appeared to enhance facial recognition accuracy for participants who were low in anxiety, but not for those high in anxiety. Finally, there was evidence of a curvilinear relationship between self-reported anxiety at time of retrieval and facial recognition accuracy.

Limiting conditions of the “physical attractiveness stereotype”: Attributions about divorce

Abstract College students read a transcript describing a couple in the process of filing for a divorce, and made attributions about perceived “blame” or “responsibility” for the divorce, recommended financial settlement, predictions of future behavior, and personality traits of the man and woman. Stated reasons for divorce (adultery of either spouse or incompatibility), physical attractiveness of the husband and wife (established by photographs), and sex of subject varied in a between-subjects design. Attractiveness of both partners strongly influenced personality ratings with socially desirable personality traits associated with high attractiveness. Reason for divorce also affected personality ratings, but in a less unidirectional manner. Reason for the divorce was also related to perceived responsibility, to recommended financial settlement, and to predictions of future behavior. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Adults' evaluations of characteristics of children's memory

Abstract A total of 701 adults evaluated qualities of the memories of children who were either 4,8, or 13 years of age. Respondents also evaluated two vignettes, one involving a girls allegation of sexual abuse, the other a girls denial that she stole money from her mother. Factor analysis identified four dimensions on which childrens memories were evaluated: honesty, accuracy, source monitoring, and suggestibility. In general, older children were seen as more accurate and better source monitors, but less honest and equally as suggestible as younger children. Respondents who were parents themselves saw children as more honest and better source monitors than did nonparents. In general, women saw children as more accurate and better source monitors than did men and older respondents tended to see childrens memories as less accurate. Women, younger respondents, and nonparents were more likely to believe the allegations about sexual abuse, but nonparents were less likely than parents to believe a girls denial of a theft. Three respondent characteristics—gender, age, and parental status, strongly affected general evaluations of childrens memory both directly and in interaction with each other.

Perspectives on the impact of lineup composition, race, and witness confidence on identification accuracy

This paper addresses a number of issues suggested by the Lindsay and Wells (1980) study on lineup composition and identification accuracy. The interaction between bias in instructions to the witness, presence or absence of the criminal from the lineup, and similarity between the suspect and the lineup foils are discussed. Although Lindsay and Wells suggest that witness confidence has little or no relationship to witness accuracy, it is pointed out that a recent field study found a substantial accuracy-confidence relationship when criminal-present photo lineups were used. There are not yet clearcut findings on the accuracy-confidence relationship in criminal-absent lineups, partially because of ambiguity in the definition of confidence in this situation. Although there is much research on the impact of the race of suspect and witness on identification accuracy, little attention has been paid to the race of the person who constructs the photo or corporeal lineup. Recent research results lead to the prediction of an interaction between all three of these factors on identification accuracy, with greatest accuracy when the lineup constructor and lineup members are of the same race and the witness is of a different race. Issues in the applicability of the results of Bayesian analyses to the judicial system are briefly discussed. Potential issues include the tendency to see researchers solely as advocates for the defense, and the tendency of people to disregard statistical summaries such as base rate data and research results when making individual decisions. An additional issue concerns Bayesian diagnosticity ratios (derived from rates of correct and false identifications) which can be logically and statistically equivalent to one another but differ considerably in their legal applications and value relevance.