John E. Hermansen

Environmental improvement potentials of meat and dairy products

The report is a scientific contribution to the European Commissions Integrated Product Policy framework, which seeks to minimise the environmental degradation caused throughout the life cycle of products. This report first presents a systematic overview of the life cycle of meat and dairy products and their environmental impacts, covering the full food chain. It goes on to provide a comprehensive analysis of the improvement options that allow reducing the environmental impacts throughout the life cycle. Finally, the report assesses the different options regarding their feasibility as well as their potential environmental and socioeconomic benefits and costs. The report shows that meat and dairy products contribute on average 24% to the environmental impacts from the total final consumption in EU-27, while constituting only 6% of the economic value. The main improvement options were identified in agricultural production, in food management by households (avoidance of food wastage), and related to power savings. When all environmental improvement potentials are taken together, the aggregated environmental impacts (external costs) of meat and dairy products may be reduced by about 20%. How to obtain EU publications Our priced publications are available from EU Bookshop (http://bookshop.europa.eu), where you can place an order with the sales agent of your choice. The Publications Office has a worldwide network of sales agents. You can obtain their contact details by sending a fax to (352) 29 29-42758.

Quantitative secretion and maximal secretion capacity of retinol, β-carotene and α-tocopherol into cows' milk

Summary. Changes in the contents of retinol, a-tocopherol and b-carotene in plasma, milk and milk fat from 38 Holstein‐Friesian cows were followed during their first lactation, and the quantitative and kinetic relationships for secretion of a-tocopherol and b-carotene from blood into milk were determined. The cows were assigned to three groups such that all cows in the same group had the same sire. Milk yield and milk fat content diered with stage of lactation, but not according to sire. The plasma concentrations of retinol, a-tocopherol and b-carotene diered with stage of lactation; in addition, retinol and b-carotene concentration also diered according to sire. The concentrations of all three vitamins in milk and milk fat diered according to sire and stage of lactation. Furthermore, the total secretion of retinol, a-tocopherol and b-carotene into milk (expressed as mg}d) diered with sire and stage of lactation. The quantitative secretion of a-tocopherol and b-carotene from blood into milk followed Michaelis‐Menten kinetics for active transport across membranes. Values of maximum secretory capacity V max and the half-rate constant K m for both a-tocopherol and b-carotene varied according to sire. Overall means for V max for a-tocopherol and b-carotene were 32‐4 and 2‐ 5m g}d. Thus, the daily secretion of a-tocopherol and b-carotene is limited in quantity, and is independent of the yields of milk and milk fat. It follows that continuing breeding and management systems that focus solely on increasing milk and milk fat yield will result in a steady dilution in the milk fat of these vitamins and antioxidants important for the immune defence of the cows and oxidative stability of milk products. The genetic variation found oers the possibility of utilizing these variations in breeding systems.

Developments in greenhouse gas emissions and net energy use in Danish agriculture – How to achieve substantial CO2 reductions?

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture are a significant contributor to total Danish emissions. Consequently, much effort is currently given to the exploration of potential strategies to reduce agricultural emissions. This paper presents results from a study estimating agricultural GHG emissions in the form of methane, nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide (including carbon sources and sinks, and the impact of energy consumption/bioenergy production) from Danish agriculture in the years 1990-2010. An analysis of possible measures to reduce the GHG emissions indicated that a 50-70% reduction of agricultural emissions by 2050 relative to 1990 is achievable, including mitigation measures in relation to the handling of manure and fertilisers, optimization of animal feeding, cropping practices, and land use changes with more organic farming, afforestation and energy crops. In addition, the bioenergy production may be increased significantly without reducing the food production, whereby Danish agriculture could achieve a positive energy balance.

Impact of organic pig production systems on CO2 emission, C sequestration and nitrate pollution

Organic rules for grazing and access to outdoor areas in pig production may be met in different ways, which express compromises between considerations for animal welfare, feed self-reliance and negative environmental impact such as greenhouse gas emissions and nitrate pollution. This article compares the environmental impact of the main organic pig systems in Denmark. Normally, sows are kept in huts on grassland and finishing pigs are raised in stables with access to an outdoor run. One alternative practice is also rearing the fattening pigs on grassland all year round. The third method investigated was a one-unit pen system mainly consisting of a deep litter area under a climate tent and with restricted access to a grazing area. Using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology, the emissions of greenhouse gases of the free range system were estimated to be 3.3 kg CO2-equivalents kg−1 live weight pig, which was significantly higher than the indoor fattening system and the tent system, yielding 2.9 and 2.8 kg CO2-eq. kg−1 pig, respectively. This was 7–22% higher compared with Danish conventional pig production but, due to the integration of grass-clover in the organic crop rotations these had an estimated net soil carbon sequestration. When carbon sequestration was included in the LCA then the organic systems had lower greenhouse gas emissions compared with conventional pig production. Eutrophication in nitrate equivalents per kg pig was 21–65% higher in the organic pig systems and acidification was 35–45% higher per kg organic pig compared with the conventional system. We conclude that, even though the free range system theoretically has agro-ecological advantages over the indoor fattening system and the tent system due to a larger grass-clover area, this potential is difficult to implement in practice due to problems with leaching on sandy soil. Only if forage can contribute to a larger proportion of the pigfeed uptake may the free range system be economically and environmentally competitive. Improvement of nitrogen cycling and efficiency is the most important factor for reducing the overall environmental load from organic pig meat. Presently, a system with pig fattening in stables and concrete-covered outdoor runs seems to be the best solution from an environmental point of view.

Major and trace elements in organically or conventionally produced milk.

A total of 480 samples of milk from 10 organically and 10 conventionally producing dairy farms in Denmark and covering 8 sampling periods over 1 year (triplicate samplings) were analysed for 45 trace elements and 6 major elements by high-resolution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry. Sampling, sample preparation, and analysis of the samples were performed under carefully controlled contamination-free conditions. The dairy cattle breeds were Danish-Holstein or Jersey. Sources of variance were quantified, and differences between production systems and breeds were tested. The major source of variation for most elements was week of sampling. Concentrations of Al, Cu, Fe, Mo, Rb, Se, and Zn were within published ranges. Concentrations of As, Cd, Cr, Mn and Pb were lower, and concentrations of Co and Sr were higher than published ranges. Compared with Holsteins, Jerseys produced milk with higher concentrations of Ba, Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Mo, P, Rh, and Zn and with a lower concentration of Bi. The organically produced milk, compared with conventionally produced milk, contained a significantly higher concentration of Mo (48 v. 37 ng/g) and a lower concentration of Ba (43 v. 62 ng/g), Eu (4 v. 7 ng/g), Mn (16 v. 20 ng/g) and Zn (4400 v. 5150 ng/g respectively). The investigation yielded typical concentrations for the following trace elements in milk, for which no or very few data are available: Ba, Bi, Ce, Cs, Eu, Ga, Gd, In, La, Nb, Nd, Pd, Pr, Rh, Sb, Sm, Tb, Te, Th, Ti, Tl, U, V, Y, and Zr.

Short-term effects on productivity and egg quality in nutrient-restricted versus non-restricted organic layers with access to different forage crops

Abstract Two experiments were conducted to study the effects of different forage crops on productivity and some egg quality parameters of small flocks of organic laying hens fed whole wheat or concentrates. Each experiment was carried out in a split plot design with two different forage crops and two types of supplementary feed (typical concentrate for organic layers versus whole wheat) with three replications. In the first experiment the tested forage crops were of a well-established grass/clover and a mixture of forbs (Fagopyrum esculentum, Phacelia tanacetifolia and Linum usitatissimum). In the second experiment the tested forage crops were a well-established grass/clover and chicory (Cichorium intybus cv. Grassland Puna). The results on productivity and egg quality suggest that laying hens consume large amounts of foraging material when accessible. In nutrient restricted hens (wheat-fed) the forage may yield a substantial contribution to the requirements of amino acids and metabolizable energy although productivity parameters and measurements on dry matter in albumen showed that wheat-fed hens, on a short-term basis, were not able to fully compensate for the lack of protein and amino acids by increased foraging. Of the forage crops investigated especially chicory seems to contribute to the nutrition of the hens. Measurements on eggshell parameters showed that oyster shells together with foraging material were sufficient to meet the hens’ calcium requirements. Yolk colour clearly revealed that laying hens consume large quantities of green fodder irrespective of the type of supplementary feed. Yolk colour from hens with access to chicory tended to be darker, of a redder and less yellow hue compared with grass/clover fed hens, which is considered a positive quality.

Plasma-derived protease inhibitors in bovine milk

Abstract Seven plasma-derived inhibitors, α 2 -macroglobulin, α 2 -antiplasmin, antithrombin III, C1-inhibitor, inter-α-trypsin inhibitor, bovine plasma elastase inhibitor (EI) and bovine plasma trypsin inhibitor (TI), have been identified in bovine colostrum and milk by western blot analysis and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Apart from individual concentration differences, significantly different levels were found in colostrum, and in milk from early, mid and late lactation. It is suggested that plasma-derived inhibitors are present in milk as a result of regulatory processes connected with mammary gland development and gradual involution. EI and TI might have additional functions as inhibitors of polymorphonuclear elastase and plasmin, respectively.

Food Security of Small Holding Farmers: Comparing Organic and Conventional Systems in India

This study compared farm production, crop yield, input cost, and income in organic and conventional farming systems in three states of India: Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. The results showed that organic farming reduced the input cost without affecting the net margin in all three states. Total food production was found to be comparable for the two systems in two of three states. While yield of rice and wheat generally was lower under the organic systems, yield from intercropping food crops was generally higher. The number of agro-ecological methods and percentage of farms practicing different agro-ecological methods were higher under organic systems than conventional systems. These results suggest that organic farming has the potential to improve food security of small farmers by reducing indebtedness due to the lower cost of production without affecting total farm production and farm income.

Growth and sensory characteristics of organically reared broilers differing in strain, sex and age at slaughter

Abstract The effects of strain, sex and age on live weight, slaughter weight and sensory characteristics of organically reared broilers in orchards are presented. A total of 450 broilers of three different strains (I 657, Light Sussex, New Hampshire) were reared in an organic research orchard. Half of each strain was slaughtered at 91 days and the other half at 120 days. All broilers were weighed and a clinical welfare assessment was made at slaughter. A trained sensory panel evaluated the breast meat in relation to flavour, smell and texture characteristics defined by the panel. At both 91 and 120 days of age the commercial breed I 657 was significantly heavier than the slower growing strains. Males were significantly heavier than the females across strains. Weight ratios between males and females were nearly the same at both slaughter ages in I 657, whereas weight ratios increased significantly at 120 days in Light Sussex and New Hampshire. No overall effect of strain was found on the flavour and smell of the breast meat. However, the age-related changes in tenderness and toughness differed significantly between strains, since the commercial strain tended towards a tougher and less tender consistency with age, whereas the opposite was the case for the slower growing pure breeds. The positive flavour of salt was significantly improved at 120 days across strains with females having a saltier flavour than the males with age. The positive flavour of sweet corn was improved in the meat from the males, whereas the positive smell of sweet corn was significantly improved in both males and females. No negative effects of age were found. In conclusion, broilers were tastier when slaughtered at 120 days compared with 91 days. The development in meat tenderness was related to strain, and weights at slaughter were related to both strain and sex.

Meat quality of fully or partly outdoor reared pigs in organic production

Abstract Outdoor production on pasture is considered an option in organic pig production. The aim of the present trial was to study the influence of feeding strategies combining outdoor and indoor rearing on pig meat quality. The experiment was carried out with 245 pigs in 5 replicates, and commenced following weaning at day 52. Five treatments were compared: 1) pigs fed ad libitum and reared indoors with access to an outdoor concrete area (In-A); 2) pigs fed restrictively on pasture until 40 kg body weight and then kept indoors with access to an outdoor concrete area and fed ad libitum until slaughter (In-40A); 3) pigs fed restrictively on pasture until 80 kg body weight and then kept indoors with access to an outdoor concrete area and fed ad libitum until slaughter (In-80A); 4) pigs reared on pasture and fed restrictively during the whole period of growth (Out-R); and 5) pigs reared on pasture and fed ad libitum during the whole period of growth (Out-A). All pigs had free access to roughage (clover-grass silage/fresh clover grass). Restrictive feeding in the weight range from weaning to 40 kg body weight (In-40A) resulted in a reduced daily gain; however, following transfer to indoor facilities and ad libitum feeding these pigs compensated in growth and the overall daily gain did not differ from the In-A control pigs. Pigs fed restrictively from weaning to 80 kg body weight were unable to compensate completely following transfer to indoor facilities. Out-R pigs had the lowest overall daily gain, while In-A pigs and Out-A pigs had similar daily gain. Meat quality assessments were performed on longissimus dorsi (LD) samples from a subsample of 100 pigs (2 castrates and 2 female pigs from each treatment in each replicate). Compared to meat from either ad libitum treatments (In-A and Out-A), meat from Out-R and In-80A pigs was less red due to a lower pigmentation, and had a higher ratio of polyunsaturated:saturated fatty acids. In addition, Out-R female pigs had numerically (6–10 Newton) higher shear force than In-A and Out-A. Treatments did not affect the concentration of α-tocopherol of meat. Introducing a finishing period with free access to concentrates following 40 kg body weight until slaughter prevented the deterioration in meat quality. However, a finishing period following 80 kg body weight was not sufficient. In conclusion, ad libitum feeding in the organic production system gave superior meat quality compared to a restrictive feeding strategy. However, including a finishing period indoors with ad libitum feeding of concentrates may prevent the detrimental effect of restrictive feeding on meat quality.