Niels Halberg

A model for fossil energy use in Danish agriculture used to compare organic and conventional farming

Knowledge about fossil energy use in agricultural systems is needed, because it can improve the understanding of how to reduce the unsustainable use of limited energy resources and the following greenhouse gas emissions. This study describes and validates a model to assess fossil energy use in Danish agriculture; gives an example of how the model can be used to compare organic and conventional farming; and discusses the implications and potentials of using the model to simulate energy use in scenarios of agricultural production. The model is a development of an existing model, which was too coarse to predict measured energy use on Danish farms. The model was validated at the field operational, the crop type, and the national level, and can supplement the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change manual to quantify fossil energy use and subsequent carbon dioxide emissions from agriculture. The model can be used to model energy use as one indicator in a multi-criteria evaluation of sustainability, also including other agroecological and socio-economic indicators. As an example, energy use for eight conventional and organic crop types on loamy, sandy, and irrigated sandy soil was compared. The energy use was generally lower in the organic than in the conventional system, but yields were also lower. Consequently, conventional crop production had the highest energy production, whereas organic crop production had the highest energy efficiency. Generally, grain cereals such as wheat have a lower energy use per area than roughage crops such as beets. However, because of higher roughage crop yields per area, energy use per feed unit was higher in the roughage crops. Energy use for both conventional cattle and pig production was found to be higher than that for organic production. With respect to fossil energy use per produced livestock unit, agro-ecosystems producing pigs were in both cases less energy effective than those producing cattle. Fossil energy use for three scenarios of conversion to organic farming with increasing fodder import was compared to current conventional farming in Denmark. The scenario with the highest fodder import showed the highest energy use per livestock unit produced. In all scenarios, the energy use per unit produced was lower than in the present situation. However, the total Danish crop production was also lower. In conclusion, the model can be used to simulate scenarios, which can add new information to the discussion of future, sustainable agricultural production.

Energy utilization in crop and dairy production in organic and conventional livestock production systems

Abstract Searching for livestock production systems with a high energy utilization is of interest because of resource use and pollution aspects and because energy use is an indicator of the intensification of production processes. Due to interactions between crop and livestock enterprises and between levels of different input factors and their effects on yields, it is proposed to analyze agricultural energy utilization through system modelling of data from farm studies. Energy use in small grains, grass-clover and fodder beets registered in organic and conventional mixed dairy farms was analyzed and used together with crop yields in order to model energy prices on three Danish soil types. Conventional crop yields were higher but they also used more indirect energy with input factors, especially fertilizers. The conventional yields were not sufficiently higher to compensate for the extra use of energy compared with the organic crops. The organic crops had lower energy prices on all soil types, with the smallest difference on irrigated sandy soils. Sensitivity analyses were made for the effects of changes in irrigation and fertilizer levels. One conclusion was that better energy utilization in grain crops might be found at intermediate levels of fertilizer use, especially on irrigated soils. Actual farm diesel use was on average 47% higher than expected from standard values, suggesting that care should be taken when basing energetic analysis of farming methods on experimental data alone. On the same farms, the energy use in dairy production registered in organic and conventional mixed dairy farms was analyzed and used together with milk and meat yields in order to model energy prices for three different feeding strategies and two soil types. Conventional dairy production is more intensive with a greater feeding ration and a higher proportion of high-protein feed, but has also higher yields. The conventional yields were not sufficiently higher to compensate for the extra use of energy compared with the organic feeding ration. However, the lower energy price in organic dairy production is dependent on the composition of the feeding strategy. Substitution of 500 SFU of grain with grass pellets makes an ordinary organic feeding ration based on conventional crop production competable. In general, the crop energy price models can be used together with the dairy production to model the effects of different feeding and crop rotation strategies on the overall energy utilization in mixed dairy production systems.

Indicators of resource use and environmental impact for use in a decision aid for Danish livestock farmers

Farmers lack well documented sets of farm level indicators to allow their own evaluation of environmental impact and to stimulate the development of more environment friendly farming practices. A set of farm level indicators of resource use and environmental impact on livestock farms was developed as part of a decision aid for farmers. The indicators were meant to be part of an extended farm account and included the surpluses and efficiencies of N, P and Cu, the energy use per kg grain and per kg milk or meat, pesticide treatment index (TFI), % unsprayed area, % small biotopes on the farm, and % weeds in grain crops. The indicators were tested on 20 Danish dairy and pig farms over a period of 3 years in order to see if they were suitable for use in the farmer’s management. The third year, farm gate surpluses varied between 89 and 265 kg N ha 1 , 2 and 31 kg Ph a 1 and 0.1 and 0.8 kg Cu ha 1 . Energy use varied between 2.1 and 4.1 MJ kg 1 milk and between 14 and 20 MJ kg 1 live weight pig sold. For all indicators, except energy use per kg grain, the variation in indicator levels between farms was more important than the variation between years within each farm. There was significant variation between farms after correction for stocking rates and soil-and farm types, which suggests that the indicators reflect differences in management practise on comparable farms. It was demonstrated that these differences between similar farms and between the years on the individual farms might be explained by the detailed knowledge of management of the farms’ different subsystems (herd and crops). The information given by the indicators is discussed from environmental and management points of view and problems of defining and interpreting the indicators are identified. Given further development of indicators for soil quality and nature values, the farm level indicators seem a promising way of enabling farmers to include environmental topics in their management. ©1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Global Development of Organic Agriculture: Challenges and Prospects

Preface: Modern agriculture and food systems, including organic agriculture, are undergoing a technological and structural modernization and are faced with a growing globalization. Organic agriculture (OA) can be seen as pionering efforts to create sustainable development based on other principles than mainstream agriculture. There are however large differences between the challenges connected to, on the one hand, modern farming and consumption in high-income countries and, on the other hand, smallholder farmers and resource-poor consumers in low-income countries. The point of departure is the increasing globalization and the production and trade of food and fodder and how this influences the role of OA. The main aim of this book is to provide an overview of the potential role and challenges of organic agriculture in this global perspective, as seen from different perspectives such as sustainability, food security and fair trade. Initially, the book provides an overall status of global trends in agriculture followed by discussions of sustainability, globalisation and the relative new concepts of ‘ecological justice’ and ‘political ecology’. Different views on economy and trade are furthermore discussed with a focus on ecological economics. Then, the status and possibilities of organic agriculture in developing countries are discussed, including problems of nutrient cycles and soil depletion plus issues on veterinary medicine. Furthermore, organic farming is related to the world food supply. The possibilities of knowledge exchange in organic agriculture are also evaluated and it is assessed how a large scale conversion to OA would impact on food security. Finally, prospects and challenges of organic farming in a globalized world are discussed in a synthesis chapter. Readers who seek first an overview and summary across the different chapters are recommended to start by reading the synthesis. The book springs from a so-called ‘knowledge synthesis’ initiated by The Danish Research Centre for Organic Food and Farming (DARCOF ) in January 2004 to provide an overview of the potential role of organic agriculture in a global perspective. In short, a knowledge synthesis analyses, discusses and synthesizes the existing knowledge on a subject not yet clarified and often disputed in relation to the main points of view. This work takes place in a group of experts from different fields that represent the different points of view on the subject. It is therefore important to include experts with different backgrounds and different perceptions of the subject. The work was initiated by five key questions: To which extent and under which circumstances: 1. Can organic production contribute to global food security? How? 2. Can organic production in developing countries contribute to a sustainable development? How? 3. Can organic certification protect natural resources, improve work conditions, etc.? How? 4. Can a fair global trade with organic products be realized? How? 5. Can organic research in high-income countries benefit organic agriculture in low-income countries? How? An international workshop, ‘Organic farming in a global perspective – globalisation, sustainable development and ecological justice’, was held in April 2004 in Copenhagen to provide inputs to the knowledge synthesis, discuss the issue and clarify ambiguous concepts. Experts from USA, Sweden, Austria, The Netherlands and Denmark were invited to give presentations on the international workshop. On the basis of presentations, discussions and group work at the workshop the outline of this book was laid down and the Danish and international experts started preparing the chapters. The knowledge synthesis on organic agriculture in a global perspective was performed by a group of Danish experts from a wide range of relevant fields in cooperation with international experts (see list of contributors). A website was established to communicate background material and working papers, and facilitate critical comments from other participants. Thus all chapters have been improved from reviews made by other experts, whom we wish to thank here. DARCOF wishes to thank all contributors to the book; their efforts are most gratefully acknowledged. Head of DARCOF, Erik Steen Kristensen August 2005

The impact of organic farming on food security in a regional and global perspective

The spread of organic and agro-ecological farming (OF) methods in developing countries has raised a debate whether a large scale adoption of OF will increase or decrease global food security. This will however depend on a number of socio-economic factors together with the relative yield levels of OF versus conventional farming systems. Relative yields again depend on a number of agro ecological factors and the characteristics of farming systems before conversion. In areas with intensive high-input agriculture, conversion to OF will most often lead to a reduction in crop yields per ha by 20-45 % in crop rotations integrated with leguminous forage crops. In many areas with low input agricultural systems farmers have little incentive or access to use chemical fertiliser and pesticides, and yields may increase when agro ecological principles are introduced. While present food production in theory is sufficient to cover the energy and protein needs of the global population there are still more than 740 million food insecure people, the majority of whom live in South Asia and Africa South of Sahara (SSA). This number will only decrease over the next 20 years if the present policies are changed. The food policy model IMPACT was used to project possible effects on food security of a large scale conversion to OF in Europe/North America (E/NA) and SSA. Results indicate that a conversion of approximately 50 % of E/NA agricultural area will have a 6-10 % impact on world prices on (non-meat) agricultural commodities under the assumptions of 35 % lower OF yields after conversion and 50 % higher yield growth rates compared with conventional crop yields. The indirect effect on food security in SSA would be very small up scaling experiences from case studies into scenarios for conversion of 50 % of agricultural area in SSA results in increased self-sufficiency and decreased net food import to the region. Given the assumption of higher relative yields in most organic crops compared with existing low input agriculture, there is potential for improving local food security in SSA if non-certified OF is supported by capacity building and research. More knowledge is needed, however, to confirm that these optimistic results of non-certified OF apply to large areas in SSA and other regions with low input agriculture.

Impact of organic pig production systems on CO2 emission, C sequestration and nitrate pollution

Organic rules for grazing and access to outdoor areas in pig production may be met in different ways, which express compromises between considerations for animal welfare, feed self-reliance and negative environmental impact such as greenhouse gas emissions and nitrate pollution. This article compares the environmental impact of the main organic pig systems in Denmark. Normally, sows are kept in huts on grassland and finishing pigs are raised in stables with access to an outdoor run. One alternative practice is also rearing the fattening pigs on grassland all year round. The third method investigated was a one-unit pen system mainly consisting of a deep litter area under a climate tent and with restricted access to a grazing area. Using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology, the emissions of greenhouse gases of the free range system were estimated to be 3.3 kg CO2-equivalents kg−1 live weight pig, which was significantly higher than the indoor fattening system and the tent system, yielding 2.9 and 2.8 kg CO2-eq. kg−1 pig, respectively. This was 7–22% higher compared with Danish conventional pig production but, due to the integration of grass-clover in the organic crop rotations these had an estimated net soil carbon sequestration. When carbon sequestration was included in the LCA then the organic systems had lower greenhouse gas emissions compared with conventional pig production. Eutrophication in nitrate equivalents per kg pig was 21–65% higher in the organic pig systems and acidification was 35–45% higher per kg organic pig compared with the conventional system. We conclude that, even though the free range system theoretically has agro-ecological advantages over the indoor fattening system and the tent system due to a larger grass-clover area, this potential is difficult to implement in practice due to problems with leaching on sandy soil. Only if forage can contribute to a larger proportion of the pigfeed uptake may the free range system be economically and environmentally competitive. Improvement of nitrogen cycling and efficiency is the most important factor for reducing the overall environmental load from organic pig meat. Presently, a system with pig fattening in stables and concrete-covered outdoor runs seems to be the best solution from an environmental point of view.

Environmental assessment of organic juice imported to Denmark: a case study on oranges ( Citrus sinensis ) from Brazil

Growing global trade with organic products has given rise to a debate on the environmental impacts during both production and transport. Environmental hotspots of organic orange juice produced by smallholders in Brazil, processed and imported to Denmark, were identified in a case study using a life cycle approach. Furthermore, small-scale organic orange production was compared with small-scale conventional and large-scale organic orange production in the case study area in Brazil. Transport was the main contributor (58%) to the global warming potential of organic orange juice from small-scale farmers imported to Denmark, followed by the farm stage (23%), especially the truck transport of fresh oranges in Brazil and of reconstituted orange juice in Europe. Non-renewable energy use per hectare was significantly lower on the organic small-scale farms than on the conventional, with a similar pattern for global warming potential and eutrophication. Including soil carbon sequestration in organic plantations widened the difference in global warming potential between organic and conventional. Organic small-scale farms had a higher crop diversity than conventional, which may have a positive effect on biodiversity along with the spontaneous vegetation between the organic orange trees and the absence of toxic pesticides. Comparing small-scale with large-scale organic orange production, crop diversity was higher on the small-scale farms, while global warming potential, eutrophication potential and the use of copper per hectare were significantly lower, indicating that environmental impacts from small-scale differ from large-scale organic farms.

1 Global trends in agriculture and food systems

Summary Increasing globalisation affects agricultural production and trade and has consequences for the sustainability of both conventional and organic agriculture. During the last decades, agricultural production and yields have been increasing along with global fertiliser and pesticide consumption. This development has been especially pronounced in the industrialised countries and some developing countries such as China, where cereal yields have increased a remarkable 2-fold and 4.5-fold respectively since 1961. In those countries, food security has increased, a greater variety of food has been offered and diets have changed towards a greater share of meat and dairy products. However, this development has lead to a growing disparity among agricultural systems and population, where especially developing countries in Africa have seen very few improvements in food security and production. The vast majority of rural households in developing countries lack the ecological resources or financial means to shift into intensive modern agricultural practices as well as being integrated into the global markets. At the same time, agricultural development

Organic agriculture and ecological justice: ethics and practice

Ecological justice is a challenging concept in relation to the current development of agriculture, because it positions social and ecological interests against market liberalism and economic growth. Ecological justice concerns fairness with regard to the common environment based on the idea that environments are fundamen-tally shared. This chapter investigates the role that ecological justice may have in relation to the global challenges of organic agriculture. We perform a philoso-phical analysis of the ethics of ecological justice and the relation to sustainability and globalization. On this basis, we discuss the challenges that this important concept poses to organic agriculture and how it can be put into organic practice. Organic agriculture is in an advanced position with regard to ecological justice, since it aims to interact in a positive way with the environment. But ecological justice also poses significant challenges to organic agriculture. The three main challenges are: the commodification of hitherto commons; external environ-mental and social costs that are not accounted for in the market; and growing distances in form of distant trade and ownership in the organic food systems. We conclude that the ideas of ecological justice can be promoted in three ways by means of organic agriculture: by implementing ecological justice more fully in the organic certification standards through incorporating a measure of ‘nearness’ and developing a fair organic trade; by promoting non-certified agriculture based on the organic principles as an alternative development strategy for local sustain-able communities and food security; and by organic agriculture serving as an alternative example for the broader implementation of ecological justice in agri-culture and society.

Indian farmers' experience with and perceptions of organic farming

In India, the number of farmers converting to organic farming has increased in the recent past despite the lack of government support in providing knowledge and extension to the farmers. The aim of this article is to investigate the perceived relevance, benefits and barriers to a conversion to organic agriculture in three different Indian contexts—in Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and Uttarakhand states. In each state, 40 farmers from both organic and conventional systems were interviewed. The findings indicated that conventional producers identified production and marketing barriers as the main constraints to adopting organic farming, while the age and education of the farmer were not deemed a problem. Lack of knowledge and lack of institutional support were other barriers to conversion. Some farmers were, however, interested in converting to organic farming in the near future in Madhya Pradesh due to the low cost of production, and in Tamil Nadu and Uttarakhand due to the price premium and health benefits. On the other hand, organic farmers were more concerned with health, environmental and production factors when institutional support was available. The years under conversion were positively associated with reduced input costs in all three states and with increased income in Tamil Nadu and increased yield in Madhya Pradesh. Both organic and conventional farmers found the two production factors, low yield and pest control, to be of major concern. However, organic farms in Madhya Pradesh and Uttarakhand experienced yield increases because most of the farms were in the post-conversion period, while the farms in Tamil Nadu were in the conversion period and experienced yield reduction. The study suggests that the government scheme for compensating yield loss during the conversion period and a price premium may help farmers adopt organic agriculture on a large scale in India.