John J. G. Tesmer

Structure of RGS4 Bound to AlF4−-Activated Giα1: Stabilization of the Transition State for GTP Hydrolysis

RGS proteins are GTPase activators for heterotrimeric G proteins. We report here the 2.8 A resolution crystal structure of the RGS protein RGS4 complexed with G(i alpha1)-Mg2+-GDP-AlF4 . Only the core domain of RGS4 is visible in the crystal. The core domain binds to the three switch regions of G(i alpha1), but does not contribute catalytic residues that directly interact with either GDP or AlF4-. Therefore, RGS4 appears to catalyze rapid hydrolysis of GTP primarily by stabilizing the switch regions of G(i alpha1), although the conserved Asn-128 from RGS4 could also play a catalytic role by interacting with the hydrolytic water molecule or the side chain of Gln-204. The binding site for RGS4 on G(i alpha1) is also consistent with the activity of RGS proteins as antagonists of G(alpha) effectors.

G protein-coupled receptor kinases: More than just kinases and not only for GPCRs

G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) kinases (GRKs) are best known for their role in homologous desensitization of GPCRs. GRKs phosphorylate activated receptors and promote high affinity binding of arrestins, which precludes G protein coupling. GRKs have a multidomain structure, with the kinase domain inserted into a loop of a regulator of G protein signaling homology domain. Unlike many other kinases, GRKs do not need to be phosphorylated in their activation loop to achieve an activated state. Instead, they are directly activated by docking with active GPCRs. In this manner they are able to selectively phosphorylate Ser/Thr residues on only the activated form of the receptor, unlike related kinases such as protein kinase A. GRKs also phosphorylate a variety of non-GPCR substrates and regulate several signaling pathways via direct interactions with other proteins in a phosphorylation-independent manner. Multiple GRK subtypes are present in virtually every animal cell, with the highest expression levels found in neurons, with their extensive and complex signal regulation. Insufficient or excessive GRK activity was implicated in a variety of human disorders, ranging from heart failure to depression to Parkinsons disease. As key regulators of GPCR-dependent and -independent signaling pathways, GRKs are emerging drug targets and promising molecular tools for therapy. Targeted modulation of expression and/or of activity of several GRK isoforms for therapeutic purposes was recently validated in cardiac disorders and Parkinsons disease.

Exchange of Substrate and Inhibitor Specificities between Adenylyl and Guanylyl Cyclases

The active sites of guanylyl and adenylyl cyclases are closely related. The crystal structure of adenylyl cyclase and modeling studies suggest that specificity for ATP or GTP is dictated in part by a few amino acid residues, invariant in each family, that interact with the purine ring of the substrate. By exchanging these residues between guanylyl cyclase and adenylyl cyclase, we can completely change the nucleotide specificity of guanylyl cyclase and convert adenylyl cyclase into a nonselective purine nucleotide cyclase. The activities of these mutant enzymes remain fully responsive to their respective stimulators, sodium nitroprusside and Gsα. The specificity of nucleotide inhibitors of guanylyl and adenylyl cyclases that do not act competitively with respect to substrate are similarly altered, indicative of their action at the active sites of these enzymes.

The crystal structure of GMP synthetase reveals a novel catalytic triad and is a structural paradigm for two enzyme families.

The crystal structure of GMP synthetase serves as a prototype for two families of metabolic enzymes. The Class I glutamine amidotransferase domain of GMP synthetase is found in related enzymes of the purine, pyrimidine, tryptophan, arginine, histidine and folic acid biosynthetic pathways. This domain includes a conserved Cys-His-Glu triad and is representative of a new family of enzymes that use a catalytic triad for enzymatic hydrolysis. The structure and conserved sequence fingerprint of the nucleotide-binding site in a second domain of GMP synthetase are common to a family of ATP pyrophosphatases, including NAD synthetase, asparagine synthetase and argininosuccinate synthetase.

Snapshot of Activated G Proteins at the Membrane: The Gαq-GRK2-Gßγ Complex

G protein–coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) plays a key role in the desensitization of G protein–coupled receptor signaling by phosphorylating activated heptahelical receptors and by sequestering heterotrimeric G proteins. We report the atomic structure of GRK2 in complex with Gαq and Gβγ, in which the activated Gα subunit of Gq is fully dissociated from Gβγ and dramatically reoriented from its position in the inactive Gαβγ heterotrimer. Gαq forms an effector-like interaction with the GRK2 regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) homology domain that is distinct from and does not overlap with that used to bind RGS proteins such as RGS4.

Structure of Gαq-p63RhoGEF-RhoA Complex Reveals a Pathway for the Activation of RhoA by GPCRs

The guanine nucleotide exchange factor p63RhoGEF is an effector of the heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide–binding protein (G protein) Gαq and thereby links Gαq-coupled receptors (GPCRs) to the activation of the small-molecular-weight G protein RhoA. We determined the crystal structure of the Gαq-p63RhoGEF-RhoA complex, detailing the interactions of Gαq with the Dbl and pleckstrin homology (DH and PH) domains of p63RhoGEF. These interactions involve the effector-binding site and the C-terminal region of Gαq and appear to relieve autoinhibition of the catalytic DH domain by the PH domain. Trio, Duet, and p63RhoGEF are shown to constitute a family of Gαq effectors that appear to activate RhoA both in vitro and in intact cells. We propose that this structure represents the crux of an ancient signal transduction pathway that is expected to be important in an array of physiological processes.

Monomeric Rhodopsin Is Sufficient for Normal Rhodopsin Kinase (GRK1) Phosphorylation and Arrestin-1 Binding

G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) oligomerization has been observed in a wide variety of experimental contexts, but the functional significance of this phenomenon at different stages of the life cycle of class A GPCRs remains to be elucidated. Rhodopsin (Rh), a prototypical class A GPCR of visual transduction, is also capable of forming dimers and higher order oligomers. The recent demonstration that Rh monomer is sufficient to activate its cognate G protein, transducin, prompted us to test whether the same monomeric state is sufficient for rhodopsin phosphorylation and arrestin-1 binding. Here we show that monomeric active rhodopsin is phosphorylated by rhodopsin kinase (GRK1) as efficiently as rhodopsin in the native disc membrane. Monomeric phosphorylated light-activated Rh (P-Rh*) in nanodiscs binds arrestin-1 essentially as well as P-Rh* in native disc membranes. We also measured the affinity of arrestin-1 for P-Rh* in nanodiscs using a fluorescence-based assay and found that arrestin-1 interacts with monomeric P-Rh* with low nanomolar affinity and 1:1 stoichiometry, as previously determined in native disc membranes. Thus, similar to transducin activation, rhodopsin phosphorylation by GRK1 and high affinity arrestin-1 binding only requires a rhodopsin monomer.

Identification of a Gialpha binding site on type V adenylyl cyclase.

The stimulatory G protein α subunit Gsα binds within a cleft in adenylyl cyclase formed by the α1-α2 and α3-β4 loops of the C2 domain. The pseudosymmetry of the C1 and C2 domains of adenylyl cyclase suggests that the homologous inhibitory α subunit Giα could bind to the analogous cleft within C1. We demonstrate that myristoylated guanosine 5′-3-O-(thio)triphosphate-Giα1 forms a stable complex with the C1 (but not the C2) domain of type V adenylyl cyclase. Mutagenesis of the membrane-bound enzyme identified residues whose alteration either increased or substantially decreased the IC50 for inhibition by Giα1. These mutations suggest binding of Giα within the cleft formed by the α2 and α3 helices of C1, analogous to the Gsα binding site in C2. Adenylyl cyclase activity reconstituted by mixture of the C1 and C2 domains of type V adenylyl cyclase was also inhibited by Giα. The C1b domain of the type V enzyme contributed to affinity for Giα, but the source of C2 had little effect. Mutations in this soluble system faithfully reflected the phenotypes observed with the membrane-bound enzyme. The pseudosymmetrical structure of adenylyl cyclase permits bidirectional regulation of activity by homologous G protein α subunits.

Snapshot of activated G proteins at the membrane: the Galphaq-GRK2-Gbetagamma complex.

G protein–coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) plays a key role in the desensitization of G protein–coupled receptor signaling by phosphorylating activated heptahelical receptors and by sequestering heterotrimeric G proteins. We report the atomic structure of GRK2 in complex with Gαq and Gβγ, in which the activated Gα subunit of Gq is fully dissociated from Gβγ and dramatically reoriented from its position in the inactive Gαβγ heterotrimer. Gαq forms an effector-like interaction with the GRK2 regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) homology domain that is distinct from and does not overlap with that used to bind RGS proteins such as RGS4.

G Protein-coupled Receptor Kinase 2/Gαq/11Interaction: A NOVEL SURFACE ON A REGULATOR OF G PROTEIN SIGNALING HOMOLOGY DOMAIN FOR BINDING Gα SUBUNITS

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) transduce cellular signals from hormones, neurotransmitters, light, and odorants by activating heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-binding (G) proteins. For many GPCRs, short term regulation is initiated by agonist-dependent phosphorylation by GPCR kinases (GRKs), such as GRK2, resulting in G protein/receptor uncoupling. GRK2 also regulates signaling by binding Gαq/ll and inhibiting Gαq stimulation of the effector phospholipase Cβ. The binding site for Gαq/ll resides within the amino-terminal domain of GRK2, which is homologous to the regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) family of proteins. To map the Gαq/llbinding site on GRK2, we carried out site-directed mutagenesis of the RGS homology (RH) domain and identified eight residues, which when mutated, alter binding to Gαq/ll. These mutations do not alter the ability of full-length GRK2 to phosphorylate rhodopsin, an activity that also requires the amino-terminal domain. Mutations causing Gαq/ll binding defects impair recruitment to the plasma membrane by activated Gαq and regulation of Gαq-stimulated phospholipase Cβ activity when introduced into full-length GRK2. Two different protein interaction sites have previously been identified on RH domains. The Gα binding sites on RGS4 and RGS9, called the “A” site, is localized to the loops between helices α3 and α4, α5 and α6, and α7 and α8. The adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) binding site of axin involves residues on α helices 3, 4, and 5 (the “B” site) of its RH domain. We demonstrate that the Gαq/ll binding site on the GRK2 RH domain is distinct from the “A” and “B” sites and maps primarily to the COOH terminus of its α5 helix. We suggest that this novel protein interaction site on an RH domain be designated the “C” site.