Jon A. Morse

An abundance of small exoplanets around stars with a wide range of metallicities

The abundance of heavy elements (metallicity) in the photospheres of stars similar to the Sun provides a ‘fossil’ record of the chemical composition of the initial protoplanetary disk. Metal-rich stars are much more likely to harbour gas giant planets, supporting the model that planets form by accumulation of dust and ice particles. Recent ground-based surveys suggest that this correlation is weakened for Neptunian-sized planets. However, how the relationship between size and metallicity extends into the regime of terrestrial-sized exoplanets is unknown. Here we report spectroscopic metallicities of the host stars of 226 small exoplanet candidates discovered by NASA’s Kepler mission, including objects that are comparable in size to the terrestrial planets in the Solar System. We find that planets with radii less than four Earth radii form around host stars with a wide range of metallicities (but on average a metallicity close to that of the Sun), whereas large planets preferentially form around stars with higher metallicities. This observation suggests that terrestrial planets may be widespread in the disk of the Galaxy, with no special requirement of enhanced metallicity for their formation.

THE COSMIC ORIGINS SPECTROGRAPH

The Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS) is a moderate-resolution spectrograph with unprecedented sensitivity that was installed into the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) in 2009 May, during HST Servicing Mission 4 (STS-125). We present the design philosophy and summarize the key characteristics of the instrument that will be of interest to potential observers. For faint targets, with flux F ? 1.0 ? 10?14?erg?cm?2?s?1 ??1, COS can achieve comparable signal to noise (when compared to Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph echelle modes) in 1%-2% of the observing time. This has led to a significant increase in the total data volume and data quality available to the community. For example, in the first 20 months of science operation (2009 September-2011 June) the cumulative redshift pathlength of extragalactic sight lines sampled by COS is nine times than sampled at moderate resolution in 19 previous years of Hubble observations. COS programs have observed 214 distinct lines of sight suitable for study of the intergalactic medium as of 2011 June. COS has measured, for the first time with high reliability, broad Ly? absorbers and Ne VIII in the intergalactic medium, and observed the He II reionization epoch along multiple sightlines. COS has detected the first CO emission and absorption in the UV spectra of low-mass circumstellar disks at the epoch of giant planet formation, and detected multiple ionization states of metals in extra-solar planetary atmospheres. In the coming years, COS will continue its census of intergalactic gas, probe galactic and cosmic structure, and explore physics in our solar system and Galaxy.

A Survey of Proper-Motion Stars. XVI. Orbital Solutions for 171 Single-lined Spectroscopic Binaries

We report 25,563 radial velocity measurements for 1359 single-lined stars in the Carney-Latham sample of 1464 stars selected for high proper motion. For 171 of these, we present spectroscopic orbital solutions. We find no obvious difference between the binary characteristics in the halo and the disk populations. The observed frequency is the same, and the period distributions are consistent with the hypothesis that the two sets of binaries were drawn from the same parent population. This suggests that metallicity in general, and radiative opacities in particular, have little influence over the fragmentation process that leads to short-period binaries. All the binaries with periods shorter than 10 days have nearly circular orbits, while the binaries with periods longer than 20 days exhibit a wide range of eccentricities and a median value of 0.37. For the metal-poor high-velocity halo binaries in our sample, the transition from circular to eccentric orbits appears to occur at about 20 days, supporting the conclusion that tidal circularization on the main sequence is important for the oldest binaries in the Galaxy.

Mass-loss rates, ionization fractions, shock velocities, and magnetic fields of stellar jets

In this paper we calculate emission-line ratios from a series of planar radiative shock models that cover a wide range of shock velocities, preshock densities, and magnetic fields. The models cover the initial conditions relevant to stellar jets, and we show how to estimate the ionization fractions and shock velocities in jets directly from observations of the strong emission lines in these flows. The ionization fractions in the HH 34, HH 47, and HH 111 jets are approximately 2%, considerably smaller than previous estimates, and the shock velocities are approximately 30 km/s. For each jet the ionization fractions were found from five different line ratios, and the estimates agree to within a factor of approximately 2. The scatter in the estimates of the shock velocities is also small (+/- 4 km/s). The low ionization fractions of stellar jets imply that the observed electron densities are much lower than the total densities, so the mass-loss rates in these flows are correspondingly higher (approximately greater than 2 x 10(exp -7) solar mass/yr). The mass-loss rates in jets are a significant fraction (1%-10%) of the disk accretion rates onto young stellar objects that drive the outflows. The momentum and energy supplied by the visible portion of a typical stellar jet are sufficient to drive a weak molecular outflow. Magnetic fields in stellar jets are difficult to measure because the line ratios from a radiative shock with a magnetic field resemble those of a lower velocity shock without a field. The observed line fluxes can in principle indicate the strength of the field if the geometry of the shocks in the jet is well known.

A MILLION-SECOND CHANDRA VIEW OF CASSIOPEIA A

We introduce a million second observation of the supernova remnant Cassiopeia A with the Chandra X-Ray Observatory. The bipolar structure of the Si-rich ejecta (northeast jet and southwest counterpart) is clearly evident in the new images, and their chemical similarity is confirmed by their spectra. These are most likely due to jets of ejecta as opposed to cavities in the circumstellar medium, since we can reject simple models for the latter. The properties of these jets and the Fe-rich ejecta will provide clues to the explosion of Cas A.

MACHO Alert 95-30: First Real-Time Observation of Extended Source Effects in Gravitational Microlensing

We present analysis of MACHO Alert 95-30, a dramatic gravitational microlensing event toward the Galactic bulge whose peak magnification departs significantly from the standard point-source microlensing model. Alert 95-30 was observed in real time by the Global Microlensing Alert Network (GMAN), which obtained densely sampled photometric and spectroscopic data throughout the event. We interpret the light-curve fine structure as indicating transit of the lens across the extended face of the source star. This signifies resolution of a star several kiloparsecs distant. We find a lens angular impact parameter θmin/θsource = 0.715 ± 0.003. This information, along with the radius and distance of the source, provides an additional constraint on the lensing system. Spectroscopic and photometric data indicate the source is a M4 III star of radius 61 ± 12 R☉, located on the far side of the bulge at ~9 kpc. We derive a lens angular velocity, relative to the source, of 21.5 ± 2.9 km s-1 kpc-1, where the error is dominated by uncertainty in the angular size of the source star. Likelihood analysis yields a median lens mass of 0.67 -->+ 2.53−0.46 M☉, located with 80% probability in the Galactic bulge at a distance of 6.93 -->+ 1.56−2.25 kpc. If the lens is a main-sequence star, we can include constraints on the lens luminosity. This modifies our estimates to Mlens=0.53 -->+ 0.52−0.35 M☉ and Dlens=6.57 -->+ 0.99−2.25 kpc. Spectra taken during the event show that the absorption-line equivalent widths of Hα and the TiO bands near 6700 A vary, as predicted for microlensing of an extended source. This is most likely due to center-to-limb variation in the stellar spectral lines. The observed spectral changes further support our microlensing interpretation. These data demonstrate the feasibility of using microlensing limb crossings as a tool to probe stellar atmospheres directly.

Spectroscopic Binaries, Velocity Jitter, and Rotation in Field Metal-poor Red Giant and Red Horizontal-Branch Stars

We summarize 2007 radial velocity measurements of 91 metal-poor field red giants. Excluding binary systems with orbital solutions, our coverage averages 13.7 yr per star, with a maximum of 18.0 yr. We report four significant findings. (1) Sixteen stars are found to be spectroscopic binaries, and we present orbital solutions for 14 of them. The spectroscopic binary frequency of the metal-poor red giants, with [Fe/H] ≤ -1.4, for periods less than 6000 days, is 16% ± 4%, which is not significantly different from that of comparable-metallicity field dwarfs, 17% ± 2%. The two CH stars in our program, BD -1°2582 and HD 135148, are both spectroscopic binaries. (2) Velocity jitter is present among about 40% of the giants with MV ≤ -1.4. The two best-observed cases, HD 3008 and BD +22°2411, show pseudoperiodicities of 172 and 186 days, longer than any known long-period variable in metal-poor globular clusters. Photometric variability seen in HD 3008 and three other stars showing velocity jitter hints that starspots are the cause. However, the phasing of the velocity data with the photometry data from Hipparcos is not consistent with a simple starspot model for HD 3008. We argue against orbital motion effects and radial pulsation, so rotational modulation remains the best explanation. The implied rotational velocities for HD 3008 and BD +22°2411, both with MV ≤ -1.4 and R ≈ 50 R⊙, exceed 12 km s-1. (3) Including HD 3008 and BD +22°2411, we have found signs of significant excess line broadening in eight of the 17 red giants with MV ≤ -1.4, which we interpret as rotation. In three cases, BD +30°2034, CD -37°14010, and HD 218732, the rotation is probably induced by tidal locking between axial rotation and the observed orbital motion with a stellar companion. But this cannot explain the other five stars in our sample that display signs of significant rotation. This high frequency of elevated rotational velocities does not appear to be caused by stellar mass transfer or mergers: there are too few main-sequence binaries with short enough periods. We also note that the lack of any noticeable increase in mean rotation at the magnitude level of the red giant branch luminosity function bump argues against the rapid rotations being caused by the transport of internal angular momentum to the surface. Capture of a planetary-mass companion as a red giant expands in radius could explain the high rotational velocities. (4) We also find significant rotation in at least six of the roughly 15 (40%) red horizontal-branch stars in our survey. It is likely that the enhanced rotation seen among a significant fraction of both blue and red horizontal-branch stars arose when these stars were luminous red giants. Rapid rotation alone therefore appears insufficient cause to populate the blue side of the horizontal branch. While the largest projected rotational velocities seen among field blue and red horizontal-branch stars are consistent with their different sizes, neither are consistent with the large values we find for the largest red giants. This suggests that some form of angular momentum loss (and possibly mass loss) has been at work. Also puzzling is the apparent absence of rotation seen in field RR Lyrae variables. Angular momentum transfer and conservation in evolved metal-poor field stars thus pose many interesting questions for the evolution of low-mass stars.

Hubble Space Telescope Images of the HH 34 Jet and Bow Shock: Structure and Proper Motions

We present new, deep Hα and [S II] images of the HH 34 jet and bow shock obtained with the Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 on board the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), which reveal the structure of this fine HH flow with unprecedented detail. Many of the knots in the jet appear to form small working surfaces with bright [S II] cores and thin Hα filaments where the mini–bow shocks extend into the surrounding medium. In combination with earlier, short-exposure HST images we have determined very precise proper-motion vectors for the various shock structures in the outflow. The jet becomes visible within about an arcsecond of the source, where a new knot has emerged between our two epoch images; it has a space velocity of at least 300 km s-1, as derived from the proper motions and correcting for the 30° angle of the flow to the line of sight. The jet rapidly slows down to a mean space velocity of about 220 km s-1, with a standard deviation of 20 km s-1 among the jet knots. Such low internal velocities lead to weak shocks, consistent with the high [S II]/Hα ratio along the jet body and in accordance with the internal working surface model for jets. The jet motion appears to be ballistic, with no evidence for a turbulent boundary layer. The jet is well resolved and steadily expands with a half-opening angle of 04. The large HH 34 working surface shows a multitude of knots, all of which are enveloped by a series of very thin, limb-brightened Hα-emitting filaments immediately behind the shock front where the flow faces into the preshock medium. One of these filaments developed four regularly spaced tiny knots between the two epochs, possibly due to a Rayleigh-Taylor instability along the filament or caused by the presence of small, dense clumps in the ambient medium. Proper motions of the HH 34 working surface show an obvious expansion due to material being squirted sideways. In addition to the large-scale S-shaped symmetry of the giant HH 34 flow, the jet shows a marked and surprisingly abrupt change in flow direction during a 65 yr interval that ended 10 yr ago, suggesting that the jet-disk system may have been influenced by powerful tidal effects by a companion star during a recent periastron passage. A second, smaller bowlike flow, called HH 534, possibly emanates from the HH 34 source region, and if so this supports the contention that the source is a binary. This data set is a testament to the unique abilities of the HST to follow morphological, photometric, and excitation changes on cooling timescales in the shocks of flows from young stars.

Proper Motions of the HH 111 Jet Observed with the Hubble Space Telescope

New Hα and [S II] images of the HH 111 jet taken with the Hubble Space Telescope reveal marked proper motions and morphological changes when compared with similar images obtained 4 years earlier. Knots in the jet, which are dominated by emission from nested bow shocks, generally move ballistically, with no evidence for turbulent motions even in regions where the emission has a complex morphology. These bow shocks sometimes overtake one another; the new images show this occurred in knot L about 80 years ago. Photometric variability, clearly visible for the first time at subarcsecond scales, can confuse ground-based measurements that require many years between epochs to detect reliable proper motions. With the exception of the bow shock L, whose wings expand laterally, the jet moves mainly along its long axis. Because HH 111 lies nearly in the plane of the sky, the proper motions translate accurately to space velocities, which range from 220 to 330 km s-1 with a typical uncertainty of ±5 km s-1. The fastest knots are associated with object E at the base of the visible jet, where a cooling layer is in the process of forming behind one of the shocks. Velocity differences between adjacent knots within the optically bright part of the jet are typically 40 km s-1, in line with predictions of nonmagnetic shock models based on emission-line fluxes. This agreement limits the component of the magnetic field perpendicular to the axis of the jet to be 1 mG.

Large-Scale Structure of the Carina Nebula

Observations obtained with the Midcourse Space Experiment (MSX) satellite reveal for the first time the complex mid-infrared morphology of the entire Carina Nebula (NGC 3372). On the largest size scale of approximately 100 pc, the thermal infrared emission from the giant H ii region delineates one coherent structure: a (somewhat distorted) bipolar nebula with the major axis perpendicular to the Galactic plane. The Carina Nebula is usually described as an evolved H ii region that is no longer actively forming stars, clearing away the last vestiges of its natal molecular cloud. However, the MSX observations presented here reveal numerous embedded infrared sources that are good candidates for sites of current star formation. Several compact infrared sources are located at the heads of dust pillars or in dark globules behind ionization fronts. Because their morphology suggests a strong interaction with the peculiar collection of massive stars in the nebula, we speculate that these new infrared sources may be sites of triggered star formation in NGC 3372.