Jonathan C. Smith

Relaxation: Mapping an uncharted world

Nine hundred and forty practitioners of massage, abbreviated progressive muscle relaxation (PMR), yoga stretching, breathing, imagery, meditation, and various combination treatments described their technique experiences on an 82-item wordlist. Factor analysis yielded 10 interpretable relaxation categories: Joyful Affects and Appraisals (Joyful), Distant, Calm, Aware, Prayerful, Accepted, Untroubled, Limp, Silent, and Mystery. The relaxation response and cognitive/somatic specificity models predict Calm and Limp, which account for only 5.5% of the variance of relaxation experience. Unlike much of previous relaxation research, we found important technique differences. PMR and massage are associated with Distant and Limp; yoga stretching, breathing, and meditation with Aware; meditation with Prayerful, and all techniques except PMR with Joyful. Results are consistent with cognitive-behavioral relaxation theory and have implications for relaxation theory, treatment, training, assessment, and research. We close with a revised model of relaxation that posits three global dimensions: tension-relief, passive disengagement, and passive engagement.

Steps toward a cognitive-behavioral model of relaxation

The prevailing model of relaxation posits a generalized state of reduced arousal, a position inconsistent with much relaxation research and clinical practice. This paper proposes an alternative model based on cognitive-behavioral principles. It hypothesizes that relaxation training has three effects: (a) reduced arousal, (b) development of cognitive skills of focusing, passivity, and receptivity, and (c) acquisition of increasingly abstract and differentiated cognitive structures supportive of relaxation. According to this perspective, different approaches to relaxation are not interchangeable but have quite different effects. Clinical implications are discussed.

Isometric Squeeze Relaxation (Progressive Relaxation) Vs Meditation: Absorption and Focusing as Predictors of State Effects

We taught isometric squeeze relaxation (a variant of progressive relaxation) or meditation to 52 anxious subjects (16 men, 36 women). For meditation, pretreatment high absorption correlated with reductions in state cognitive and somatic anxiety as well as increments in state focusing. For isometric squeeze relaxation, pretreatment low state focusing correlated with reductions in somatic anxiety and increments in focusing. Results suggest that isometric squeeze relaxation (and progressive relaxation) may be more appropriate for individuals who have difficulty focusing, and meditation for those who already possess well-developed relaxation skills at a trait level. The results appear more consistent with Smiths cognitive-behavioral model of relaxation than with Bensons relaxation response or Davidson and Schwartzs specific effects models.

The factor structure of self-reported physical stress reactions

A self-report questionnaire tapping 98 frequently reported physical stress reactions was subjected to factor analysis. The instrument was given to 1,210 subjects (593 males, 520 females, and 97 who failed to indicate their gender). The final factor solution identified 18 interpretable factors for the combined sample. Some of the more notable findings are: (a) Gastric Distress (Factor 1) is by far the most prominent factor and accounts for .491 of the total variance; (b) the factor solutions for males and females are highly similar, although Cardiorespiratory Activity (Factor 2) is defined by a greater diversity of noncardiac reactions for females than for males; and (c) six independent striated muscle tension factors can be identified for the entire sample. Results are discussed in terms of a behavioral conceptualization of psychosomatic symptoms. Clinical implications are noted.

ABC RELAXATION THEORY AND THE FACTOR STRUCTURE OF RELAXATION STATES, RECALLED RELAXATION ACTIVITIES, DISPOSITIONS, AND MOTIVATIONS '

ABC Relaxation Theory proposes 15 psychological relaxation-related states (R-States): Sleepiness, Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, Mental Quiet, Rested/Refreshed, At Ease/At Peace, Energized, Aware, Joy, Thankfulness and Love, Prayerfulness, Childlike Innocence, Awe and Wonder, Mystery, and Timeless/Boundless/Infinite. The present study summarizes the results of 13 separate factor analyses of immediate relaxation-related states, states associated with recalled relaxation activities, relaxation dispositions, and relaxation motivations on a combined sample of 1,904 individuals (group average ages ranged from 28–40 yr.). Four exploratory factor analyses of Smith Relaxation Inventories yielded 15 items that most consistently and exclusively load (generally at least .70) on six replicated factors. These items included happy, joyful, energized, rested, at peace, warm, limp, silent, quiet, dozing, drowsy, prayerful, mystery, distant, and indifferent. Subsequent factor analyses restricted to these items and specifying six factors were performed on 13 different data sets. Each yielded the same six-factor solution: Factor 1: Centered Positive Affect, Factor 2: Sleepiness, Factor 3: Disengagement, Factor 4: Physical Relaxation, Factor 5: Mental Quiet, and Factor 6: Spiritual. Implications for ABC Relaxation Theory are discussed.

STRESS SYMPTOMS OF TWO GROUPS BEFORE AND AFTER THE TERRORIST ATTACKS OF 9/11/01

This study investigated stress symptoms before and after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attack on the World Trade Center. Responses to the Smith Stress Symptoms Inventory were compared for Chicago area college students assessed 1 to 5 weeks after 9/11 (n = 149) and a comparable sample tested up to 5 months prior to 9/11 (n = 320). Post-9/11 participants scored higher on Attention Deficit. Contrary to prior research, post-9/11 participants did not score higher on distress, including Worry, Autonomic Arousal/Anxiety, Striated Muscle Tension, Depression, and Anger. It is suggested that those indirectly exposed to a terrorist attack may display traditional symptoms of distress and arousal (as suggested by previous research). Later symptoms of attention deficit and distancing may emerge. This work was based on independent pre- and post-9/11 samples and must be replicated longitudinally as a test-retest to draw conclusions regarding change over time.

Self-reported physical stress reactions: first- and second-order factors.

Stress Inventory-6, a 72-item self-report questionnaire designed to tap 18 factors of physical stress reactions, was subjected to factor analysis. The instrument was given to 474 students (254 females, 206 males, and 14 who failed to indicate their gender). The final factor solution identified 16 first-order and 4 second-order factors. The first-order solution replicated most of the factors identified in a previous study and defined factors in terms of organ system, muscle group, and simple content. In the second-order solution, Factors I, III, and IV include symptoms that are immediate and direct, appear to be related to arousal of the somatic and sympathetic nervous system, and are marked prominently by cardiorespiratory activity. In contrast, Factor II includes symptoms that are indirect and often delayed consequences of sustained arousal (Fatigue and Lack of Energy, Headaches, Backaches, etc.). A major distinction can be made between stress arousal Factors I and III. Factor III appears to be a simple “fight or flight” arousal pattern characterized by fairly direct manifestations of striated muscle tension as well as cardiorespiratory activity. In contrast, Factor I is a complex arousal pattern characterized by diffuse autonomic arousal, self-directed attention, and possibly low self-esteem. The results of this study draw into question the extent to which popular stress inventories tap a representative sample of stress symptoms. Clinical implications are discussed.

Type A (coronary-prone) behavior and self-reported physical and cognitive reactions to actual life stressors.

The Jenkins Activity Survey and Stress Inventories 6 and 7 were given to 148 college students and staff. When recalling actual life stressors, hurried and impatient males (but not females) were likely to report more personalized and severe worries and more symptoms of physical stress.

Factor structure of the Smith irrational beliefs inventory: results of analyses on six independent samples.

This study reports the results of six factor analyses (alpha factoring, direct oblimin rotation, Delta = .4) on six items from the Smith Irrational Beliefs Inventory. Six independent samples of 1851 college students (521 men, 1,280 women, 50 sex unstated) were tested. Three factors emerged with identical content for each analysis. Distorted Egocentrism was defined by two items reflecting feelings of entitlement and the naïve assumption that events should always turn out favorably the way one desires; Task Exaggeration/Catastrophizing was defined by two items directly depicting a tendency to view challenges as overwhelming and catastrophic; and Isolated Low Self-esteem was defined by two items expressing the feeling that one has unacceptable feelings that could lead to isolation or rejection. Previous research on other irrational belief inventories has yielded inconsistent results, with multifactorial solutions emerging for clinical samples and unifactoral solutions for student samples. That the present six factor analytic studies yielded a consistent multifactoral set of irrational beliefs for a very large student sample suggests that factors do emerge when items are initially screened and the subject population is carefully defined.

Evaluación del burnout y bienestar psicológico en los profesionales sanitarios del País Vasco

Resumen es: Se evaluaron los niveles del Sindrome de Quemarse por el Trabajo (SQT) y bienestar psicologico en el trabajo de 1275 profesionales sanitarios (619 Medico...