Jonathan J. Scholey

Acoustic Emission in Wide Composite Specimens

Acoustic emission (AE) is an attractive technique for the structural health monitoring (SHM) of aerospace systems. To reach its full potential in this role a quantitative approach must be adopted to study damage mechanisms in composite materials. In this paper, some of the practical issues regarding acoustic emission testing in composites are addressed. A model describing Lamb wave propagation through plates is described and used to make phase velocity and attenuation measurements in both aluminium and carbon fibre reinforced plastic plates. Results are then implemented in the frequency domain to conduct an experimental study of normal incidence Lamb wave reflections. Comparisons are made with finite element analysis (FEA) models with good results.

Quantitative structural health monitoring using acoustic emission

Acoustic emission (AE) testing is potentially a highly suitable technique for structural health monitoring (SHM) applications due to its ability to achieve high sensitivity from a sparse array of sensors. For AE to be deployed as part of an SHM system it is essential that its capability is understood. This is the motivation for developing a forward model, referred to as QAE-Forward, of the complete AE process in real structures which is described in the first part of this paper. QAE-Forward is based around a modular and expandable architecture of frequency domain transfer functions to describe various aspects of the AE process, such as AE signal generation, wave propagation and signal detection. The intention is to build additional functionality into QAE-Forward as further data becomes available, whether this is through new analytic tools, numerical models or experimental measurements. QAE-Forward currently contains functions that implement (1) the excitation of multimodal guided waves by arbitrarily orientated point sources, (2) multi-modal wave propagation through generally anisotropic multi-layered media, and (3) the detection of waves by circular transducers of finite size. Results from the current implementation of QAE-Forward are compared to experimental data obtained from Hsu-Neilson tests on aluminum plate and good agreement is obtained. The paper then describes an experimental technique and a finite element modeling technique to obtain quantitative AE data from fatigue crack growth that will feed into QAE-Forward.

A practical technique for quantifying the performance of acoustic emission systems on plate-like structures

A model for quantifying the performance of acoustic emission (AE) systems on plate-like structures is presented. Employing a linear transfer function approach the model is applicable to both isotropic and anisotropic materials. The model requires several inputs including source waveforms, phase velocity and attenuation. It is recognised that these variables may not be readily available, thus efficient measurement techniques are presented for obtaining phase velocity and attenuation in a form that can be exploited directly in the model. Inspired by previously documented methods, the application of these techniques is examined and some important implications for propagation characterisation in plates are discussed. Example measurements are made on isotropic and anisotropic plates and, where possible, comparisons with numerical solutions are made. By inputting experimentally obtained data into the model, quantitative system metrics are examined for different threshold values and sensor locations. By producing plots describing areas of hit success and source location error, the ability to measure the performance of different AE system configurations is demonstrated. This quantitative approach will help to place AE testing on a more solid foundation, underpinning its use in industrial AE applications.

Progress Towards a Forward Model of the Complete Acoustic Emission Process

Acoustic emission (AE) techniques have obvious attractions for structural health monitoring (SHM) due to their extreme sensitivity and low sensor density requirement. A factor preventing the adoption of AE monitoring techniques in certain industrial sectors is the lack of a quantitative deterministic model of the AE process. In this paper, the development of a modular AE model is described that can be used to predict the received time-domain waveform at a sensor as a result of an AE event elsewhere in the structure. The model is based around guided waves since this is how AE signals propagate in many structures of interest. Separate modules within the model describe (a) the radiation pattern of guided wave modes at the source, (b) the propagation and attenuation of guided waves through the structure, (c) the interaction of guided waves with structural features and (d) the detection of guided waves with a transducer of finite spatial aperture and frequency response. The model is implemented in the frequency domain with each element formulated as a transfer function. Analytic solutions are used where possible; however, by virtue of its modular architecture it is straightforward to include numerical data obtained either experimentally or through finite element analysis (FEA) at any stage in the model. The paper will also show how the model can used, for example, to produce probability of detection (POD) data for an AE testing configuration.

Guided Wave Acoustic Emission from Fatigue Crack Growth in Aluminium Plate

Acoustic emission (AE) testing is an increasingly popular technique used for nondestructive evaluation (NDE). It has been used to detect and locate defects such as fatigue cracks in real structures. The monitoring of fatigue cracks in plate-like structures is critical for aerospace industries. Much research has been conducted to characterize and provide quantitative understanding of the source of emission on small specimens. It is difficult to extend these results to real structures as most of the experiments are restricted by the geometric effects from the specimens. The aim of this work is to provide a characterization of elastic waves emanating from fatigue cracks in plate-like structures. Fatigue crack growth is initiated in large 6082 T6 aluminium alloy plate specimens subjected to fatigue loading in the laboratory. A large specimen is utilized to eliminate multiple reflections from edges. The signals were recorded using both resonant and nonresonant transducers attached to the surface of the alloy specimens. The distances between the damage feature and sensors are located far enough apart in order to obtain good separation of guided-wave modes. Large numbers of AE signals are detected with active fatigue crack propagation during the experiment. Analysis of experimental results from multiple crack growth events are used to characterize the elastic waves. Experimental results are compared with finite element predictions to examine the mechanism of AE generation at the crack tip.

Acoustic emission from pitting corrosion in stressed stainless steel plate

Abstract The acoustic emission (AE) technique is used to detect and study the AE signals emitted from pitting corrosion on 316L stainless steel plate samples subjected to different levels of surface stress. The tests are performed in a four point bend using accelerated localised salt water corrosion driven by a potentiostat. The AE event rate and the corrosion rate are both found to be affected by the different surface stresses on the plate. After an initial stress dependent phase that lasts around two hours, the AE event rate reduces to a fairly steady rate that is independent of the applied stress. The statistics of the AE data collected from pitting in these specimens is used as the input into a model of an AE corrosion detection system in a larger scale structure. Such a model can be used to estimate the performance of the system as a function of parameters such as threshold level and sensor separation.

Design considerations for the acoustic emission testing of large composite specimens

Acoustic emission (AE) testing is a sensitive technique capable of detecting many types of defect with a sparse sensor array making it an attractive structural health monitoring technology. The widespread application of the technology is limited by a lack of predictive modelling and in part, the lack of quantitative source characteristics. The vast majority of current laboratory AE testing is conducted on small coupons which cannot be used to generate quantitative source characteristics since reflected wave energy from the specimen edges influences the received waveforms. An alternative approach is to test on large specimens where the modal properties of propagating waves can be examined with no influence from reflected wave energy. However, the design and testing of large specimens is not trivial. The work in this paper discusses the design of large fibre reinforced composite (FRC) specimens which are suitable for making quantitative source measurements. The design considerations include the minimum plate dimensions and placement of sensors. A novel technique, referred to as the location-time plot technique, is described which links propagation characteristics, specimen dimensions and sensor locations to map the dispersion of elastic waves in plates. The technique is demonstrated in the design of a simple AE experiment on a highly anisotropic plate. The technique is then used in the design of a practical AE testing arrangement for monitoring delamination from artificial defects in a large FRC plate. Experimental waveforms, recorded using this AE testing arrangement, are presented and are shown to be in agreement with the location-time plot technique.

Quantification of Acoustic Emission from Crack Growth in Plate Structures

This paper describes the development of a forward modeling framework, QAE‐Forward, of the complete acoustic emission (AE) process in real structures. Finite element modeling results are presented showing the modal pattern of radiated guided wave energy from a growing fatigue crack. This data will ultimately be used as an input to QAE‐Forward. The challenges of obtained the same data experimentally are also demonstrated.

A practical approach for quantifying acoustic emission signals using diffuse field measurements

Acoustic Emission (AE) testing is capable of detecting a wide range of defects using a relatively sparse sensor array and as a result is a candidate structural health monitoring technology. The widespread application of the technology is restricted by a lack of predictive modelling capability and quantitative source characteristic information. Most AE tests are conducted on small coupons where source characteristics are estimated using the early arriving part of the AE signal. The early arriving part of an AE signal, and therefore the source characteristics, are dependent on the source location, source orientation and specimen geometry making them unsuitable for use in predictive models. The work in this paper is concerned with making source characterisation measurements based on the diffuse field of an AE signal. A practical approach for calibrating the diffuse field amplitude is proposed and is demonstrated on AE signals from electrochemically accelerated corrosion of a 316L stainless steel plate. The diffuse field amplitude of several AE events is calculated and reported as an equivalent absolute force. The low signal to noise ratio and high attenuation of elastic wave energy are found to reduce the accuracy of the results.