Paul D. Wilcox

AIP Conference Proceedings

The quality of an ultrasonic array image, especially for anisotropic material, depends on accurate information about acoustic properties. Inaccuracy of acoustic properties causes image degradation, e.g., blurring, errors in locating of reflectors and introduction of artifacts. In this paper, for an anisotropic austenitic steel weld, an autofocus imaging technique is presented. The array data from a series of beacons is captured and then used to statistically extract anisotropic weld properties by using a Monte-Carlo inversion approach. The beacon and imaging systems are realized using two separated arrays; one acts as a series of beacons and the other images these beacons. Key to the Monte-Carlo inversion scheme is a fast forward model of wave propagation in the anisotropic weld and this is based on the Dijkstra algorithm. Using this autofocus approach a measured weld map was extracted from an austenitic weld and used to reduce location errors, initially greater than 6mm, to less than 1mm.

A rapid signal processing technique to remove the effect of dispersion from guided wave signals

Guided acoustic and ultrasonic waves have been utilized in various manners for non-destructive evaluation and testing. If a guided wave mode is dispersive, a pulse of energy will spread out in space and time as it propagates. For a long-range guided wave inspection application, this constrains the choice of operating point to regions on the dispersion curves where dispersion effects are small. A signal processing technique is presented that enables this constraint on operating point to be relaxed. The technique makes use of a priori knowledge of the dispersion characteristics of a guided wave mode to map signals from the time to distance domains. In the mapping process, dispersed signals are compressed to their original shape. The theoretical basis of the technique is described and an efficient numerical implementation is presented. The robustness of the technique to inaccuracies in the dispersion data is also addressed. The application of the technique to experimental data is shown and the resulting improvement in spatial resolution is demonstrated. The implications of using dispersion compensation in practical systems are briefly discussed.

Omni-directional guided wave transducer arrays for the rapid inspection of large areas of plate structures

Omni-directional guided wave array transducers contain a circular pattern of elements that individually behave as omni-directional point transmitters or receivers. The data set acquired from such an array contains time-domain signals from each permutation of transmitter and receiver. A phased addition algorithm is developed that allows an omni-directional, B-scan image of the surrounding plate to be synthesized from any geometry of array. Numerically simulated data from a single reflector is used to test the performance of the algorithm. The results from an array containing a fully populated circular area of elements (Type I array) are found to be good, but those from an array containing a single ring of elements (Type II array) contain many large side-lobes. An enhancement to the basic phased addition algorithm is presented that uses deconvolution to suppress these side-lobes. The deconvolution algorithm enables a Type II array to equal the performance of a Type I array of the same overall diameter. The effect of diameter on angular resolution is investigated. Experimental data obtained from a guided wave array containing electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMAT) elements for exciting and detecting the S/sub 0/ Lamb wave mode in a 5-mm thick aluminium plate are processed with both algorithms and the results are discussed.

Strategies for guided-wave structural health monitoring

Structural health monitoring (SHM) using guided waves is one of the only ways in which damage anywhere in a structure can be detected using a sparse array of permanently attached sensors. To distinguish damage from structural features, some form of comparison with damage-free reference data is essential, and here subtraction is considered. The detectability of damage is determined by the amplitude of residual signals from structural features remaining after the subtraction of reference data. These are non-zero due to changing environmental conditions such as temperature. In this paper, the amplitude of the residual signals is quantified for different guided-wave SHM strategies. Comparisons are made between two methods of reference signal subtraction and between two candidate sensor configurations. These studies allow estimates to be made of the number of sensors required per unit area to reliably detect a prescribed type of damage. It is shown that the number required is prohibitively high, even in the presence of modest temperature fluctuations, hence some form of temperature compensation is absolutely essential for guided-wave SHM systems to be viable. A potential solution is examined and shown to provide an improvement in signal suppression of approximately 30 dB, which corresponds to two orders of magnitude reduction in the number of sensors required.

Mode and transducer selection for long range lamb wave inspection

Lamb waves can propagate many metres along plate and shell structures, and so have great potential in ‘smart structure’ applications where it is important for a transducer to interrogate a significant area of the surrounding structure. However, there are many different types of Lamb wave and in order to obtain simple signals that can be reliably interpreted, it is important to excite a single mode in a well controlled direction. The choice of which Lamb wave mode to use in a particular application depends on numerous factors, including the resolution required, the type of defects or damage to be detected, the attenuation and the available transduction options. This paper sets out a rational procedure for identifying suitable Lamb wave modes and operating frequencies for a particular inspection task. It is shown that the properties of the system to be inspected determine which mode and frequencies can be used, and that this then dictates the type of transducer required. A procedure for evaluating the performance of Lamb wave transducers is also demonstrated. As an illustrative example, it is shown that the well known angle incidence transduction technique is not generally suitable in applications where the structure to be inspected is liquid loaded. In such cases it is necessary to consider alternative transduction options such as electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMATs) or shear piezoelectric devices.

Efficient temperature compensation strategies for guided wave structural health monitoring

The application of temperature compensation strategies is important when using a guided wave structural health monitoring system. It has been shown by different authors that the influence of changing environmental and operational conditions, especially temperature, limits performance. This paper quantitatively describes two different methods to compensate for the temperature effect, namely optimal baseline selection (OBS) and baseline signal stretch (BSS). The effect of temperature separation between baseline time-traces in OBS and the parameters used in the BSS method are investigated. A combined strategy that uses both OBS and BSS is considered. Theoretical results are compared, using data from two independent long-term experiments, which use predominantly A(0) mode and S(0) mode data respectively. These confirm that the performance of OBS and BSS quantitatively agrees with predictions and also demonstrate that the combination of OBS and BSS is a robust practical solution to temperature compensation.

The temperature stability of guided wave structural health monitoring systems

It is desirable for any structural health monitoring (SHM) system to have maximum sensitivity with minimum sensor density. The structural health monitoring system described here is based on the excitation and reception of guided waves using piezoelectric elements as sensors. One of the main challenges faced is that in all but the most simple structures the wave interactions become too complex for the time domain signals to be interpreted directly. One approach to overcoming this complexity is to subtract a baseline reference signal from the measured system when it is known to be defect free. This strategy enables changes in the structure to be identified. Two key issues must be addressed to allow this paradigm to become a reality. First, the system must be sufficiently sensitive to small reflections from defects such as cracking. Second, it must be able to distinguish between benign changes and those due to structural defects. In this paper the baseline subtraction approach is used to detect defects in a simple rectangular plate. The system is shown to work well in the short term, and good sensitivity to defects is demonstrated. The performance degrades over the medium to long term. The principal reason for this degradation is shown to be the effect of change in temperature of the system. These effects are quantified and strategies for overcoming them are discussed.

The use of non-collinear mixing for nonlinear ultrasonic detection of plasticity and fatigue

This letter reports on the application of the non-collinear mixing technique to the ultrasonic measurement of material nonlinearity to assess plasticity and fatigue damage. Non-collinear mixing is potentially more attractive for assessing material state than other nonlinear ultrasonic techniques because system nonlinearities can be both independently measured and largely eliminated. Here, measurements made on a sample after plastic deformation and on a sample subjected to low-cycle fatigue show that the non-collinear technique is indeed capable of measuring changes in both, and is therefore a viable inspection technique for these types of material degradation.

The wavenumber algorithm for full-matrix imaging using an ultrasonic array

Ultrasonic imaging using full-matrix capture, e.g., via the total focusing method (TFM), has been shown to increase angular inspection coverage and improve sensitivity to small defects in nondestructive evaluation. In this paper, we develop a Fourier-domain approach to full-matrix imaging based on the wavenumber algorithm used in synthetic aperture radar and sonar. The extension to the wavenumber algorithm for full-matrix data is described and the performance of the new algorithm compared with the TFM, which we use as a representative benchmark for the time-domain algorithms. The wavenumber algorithm provides a mathematically rigorous solution to the inverse problem for the assumed forward wave propagation model, whereas the TFM employs heuristic delay-and-sum beamforming. Consequently, the wavenumber algorithm has an improved point-spread function and provides better imagery. However, the major advantage of the wavenumber algorithm is its superior computational performance. For large arrays and images, the wavenumber algorithm is several orders of magnitude faster than the TFM. On the other hand, the key advantage of the TFM is its flexibility. The wavenumber algorithm requires a regularly sampled linear array, while the TFM can handle arbitrary imaging geometries. The TFM and the wavenumber algorithm are compared using simulated and experimental data.

On the development and testing of a guided ultrasonic wave array for structural integrity monitoring

The prototype of a guided ultrasonic wave array for the structural integrity monitoring of large, plate-like structures has been designed, built, and tested. The development of suitably small transducers for the excitation and measurement of the first antisymmetric Lamb wave mode A/sub 0/ is described. The array design consists of a ring of 32 transducers, permanently bonded to the structure with a protective membrane, in a compact housing with the necessary multiplexing electronics. Using a phased addition algorithm with dispersion compensation and deconvolution in the wavenumber domain, a good dynamic range can be achieved with a limited number of transducers. Limitations in the transducer design and manufacture restricted the overall dynamic range achieved to 27 dB. Laboratory measurements for a steel plate containing various defects have been performed. The results for standard defects are compared to theoretical predictions and the sensitivity of the array device for defect detection has been established. Simulated corrosion pitting and a defect cut with an angle grinder simulating general corrosion were detected.