Jonathan R. Brauer

Social Learning Theory and Human Reinforcement

Scholars differ in their assumptions about the strength of accumulated evidence concerning social learning theory. One area of potential weakness is a possible dearth of evidence regarding differential reinforcement, the theorys central causal mechanism. We report results from a systematic review of (1) a sample of experimental studies concerning human reinforcement learning as well as (2) criminological/sociological studies cited by proponents as supportive of social learning theory. This review is designed to assess the empirical basis for reinforcement and social learning. It suggests that results of experimental research, though supportive of the reinforcement process, may be limited in applicability to social learning theorys hypotheses regarding differential reinforcement, and direct tests of differential reinforcement hypotheses are rare in the non-experimental literature. We conclude that the strength of social learning theory could be enhanced by more thorough and direct testing of reinforcement hypotheses and we offer suggestions about how to accomplish that.

Social Relationships and Delinquency: Revisiting Parent and Peer Influence during Adolescence

Scholars interested in delinquency have focused much attention on the influence of parent and peer relationships. Prior research has assumed that parents control delinquency because they value convention, whereas peers promote delinquency because they value and model nonconvention. We argue that it is important to assess the normative and behavioral orientations of those to whom adolescents feel close to accurately model how relationships operate. Drawing on social control, social learning, and a prominent developmental perspective, we derive and test alternative hypotheses about the manner in which attachments to significant others and the normative and behavioral orientations of these others operate either independently or in tandem to influence delinquency. Empirical findings based on tobit regressions and National Youth Survey (NYS) data suggest that social learning theory is best equipped to explain peer influence; however, the developmental perspective appears more applicable to parent influence.

Social welfare support and homicide: longitudinal analyses of European countries from 1994 to 2010.

The purpose of this research is to explore the extent to which retrenchment in welfare support is related to homicide trends across European countries between 1994 and 2010. Using a longitudinal decomposition design that allows for stronger causal inferences compared to typical cross-sectional designs, we examine these potential linkages between social support spending and homicide with data collected from a heterogeneous sample of European nations, including twenty Western nations and nine less frequently analyzed East-Central nations, during recent years in which European nations generally witnessed substantial changes in homicide rates as well as both economic prosperity and fiscal crisis. Results suggest that even incremental, short-term changes in welfare support spending are associated with short-term reductions in homicide-specifically, impacting homicide rates within two to three years for this sample of European nations.

Childhood Experiences and Self-Control

Survey data collected simultaneously in Dhaka, Bangladesh; Lviv, Ukraine; and a rural area of the Lviv region in Ukraine are used to examine hypothesized sources of self-control found in Gottfredson and Hirschis self-control theory (G/H) and in coercion/social support theory (CSS). Analyses provide limited support for the G/H model and almost no support for the challenge posed by arguments concerning social support and self-control. Exploratory analyses indicate that the various parenting dimensions specified in the G/H model and sources of social support implied by CSS theory may have countervailing influences on self-control, thereby producing less than desirable outcomes. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Coercion and Social Support Behind Bars: Testing an Integrated Theory of Misconduct and Resistance in U.S. Prisons

In this article, we examine key propositions from Colvin, Cullen, and Vander Ven’s Differential Coercion/Social Support Theory (DCSST) to explain inmate violence, misconduct, and resistance within prison. Results from logistic regression models applied to data from a sample of 481 prisoners incarcerated in state correctional facilities across the United States provide mixed support for the theory. Coercive experiences within prison are associated with engagement in violent misconduct as well as defiant and institutionalized forms of inmate resistance. However, social support is not consistently related to either misconduct or resistance. Furthermore, results suggest that prison staff can inhibit these reactive behaviors by effectively reducing violence and promoting safety within prisons. These findings have important implications for the status of DCSST and for advancing popular explanations of inmate misconduct.

Head Injuries and Changes in Delinquency from Adolescence to Emerging Adulthood: The Importance of Self-control as a Mediating Influence

Objectives: The current study examines whether head injuries suffered earlier in the life course are associated with subsequent changes in self-control and delinquency. Methods: Latent growth curve models and path analysis are used to analyze the developmental trajectories of self-control and delinquency as well as the potential associations between head injury, self-control, and delinquency among a sample of youth offenders from the pathways to desistance study. Results: The results revealed significant associations between head injuries and short-term changes in self-control and subsequent increases in aggressive delinquency. Indirect pathway models revealed that lower levels of self-control significantly mediated the association between head injuries and starting levels in aggressive delinquency. The association between head injuries and changes in aggressive delinquency was also significantly mediated by self-control, but the association was negative, indicating that youth who previously suffered head injuries desisted from aggressive delinquency at a slightly faster rate than their noninjured peers. Additional analyses revealed that, despite accelerated rates of decline, injured youth engaged in significantly higher levels of aggressive delinquency throughout the entire observation period. Conclusion: Head injuries represent one environmental factor that may influence delinquent behaviors through their influence on biological and developmental processes.

When Crime is not an Option: Inspecting the Moral Filtering of Criminal Action Alternatives

Many theories assume legal compliance stems from rational deliberations about consequences of disobedience. In contrast, morality theories such as Wikström’s Situational Action Theory contend personal morality and moral contexts provide a “filter” prohibiting some people from perceiving and contemplating criminal actions as realistic possibilities. We examine this moral filtering hypothesis using face-to-face household survey data from 573 adults in the Dhaka District of Bangladesh. Results suggest individuals with higher levels of personal morality (moral beliefs; guilt from contemplating violence; moral identity; emotional empathy) and exposure to strong moral settings are less likely to contemplate aggressive and violent actions in response to a provocation. Furthermore, these dimensions of personal and contextual morality appear to be indirectly linked to violent criminal actions through individuals’ tendencies to contemplate aggressive actions when provoked. Overall, our initial inspection of the moral filter hypothesis provides substantial support and highlights areas for theoretical clarification and additional research.

Different Service, Same Experience: Documenting the Subtlety of Modern Racial Discrimination in U.S. Restaurants

Restaurant servers’ negative sentiments toward Black customers have been well documented. Further, existing research has shown that a large proportion of waiters/waitresses confess that they sometimes discriminate against Black Americans by giving them less than their optimal service effort. However, research assessing the generalized consequences of servers’ discriminatory practices on consumers’ experiences is lacking. In response, this study analyzes survey data from a demographically diverse sample of Black and White consumers (N = 415) to test for interracial differences in nine distinct self-reported outcomes assessing typical and recent dining experiences in full-service restaurants. Given widespread anti-Black sentiments and discriminatory actions among servers, we posit that Black Americans will on average report diminished dining experiences relative to their White counterparts. In contrast to our predictions, results indicate that Black and White respondents report similar dining experiences when visiting full-service restaurants and, where differences exist, Black respondents appear to report slightly more positive and less negative experiences compared with their White counterparts. We identify a number of interconnected factors that may account for this observed pattern and conclude by encouraging additional scholarship on the nature and downstream effects of race-based restaurant service.

The Effect of MAOA and Stress Sensitivity on Crime and Delinquency: A Replication Study:

Across several meta-analyses, MAOA-uVNTR genotype has been associated with an increased risk for antisocial behavior among males who experienced early life adversity. Subsequently, early life stress and genetic susceptibility may have long-term effects on stress sensitivity later in life. In support of this assumption, a recent study found evidence, in two independent samples, for a three-way interaction effect (cG × E × E) such that proximate stress was found to moderate the interactive effect of MAOA-uVNTR and distal stress on crime and delinquency among males. In light of recent developments in cG × E research, we attempted to replicate these findings in an independent sample of university students. Our results failed to support any cG × E or cG × E × E effects reported in the original study. Implications of a failed replication and general concerns for future cG × E research are discussed.

Tableside Justice: Racial Differences in Retributive Reactions to Dissatisfaction

Existing evidence indicates that racial discrimination is a common, if not pervasive, feature of Black Americans’ experiences in U.S. consumer markets. However, few studies have quantitatively explored specific social psychological and interactional consequences of consumer racial discrimination. In response, we draw from literatures on experiences, attributions, and reactions to racial discrimination to posit and test for Black-White differences in consumers’ behavioral responses to dissatisfactory dining experiences. Specifically, past research shows that Black Americans’ dissatisfactory experiences in consumer markets are more often perceived to be the result of consumer racial discrimination. Given their increased exposure to racial discrimination in consumer markets and the United States more broadly, we posit that Black customers will react more punitively to dissatisfactory restaurant experiences than White customers. We test this notion using a within-subject experimental design and regression analyses of survey data collected from a consumer panel of White and Black U.S. adults (n = 307). Results indicate that Black respondents in this sample are more likely than White respondents to penalize their server’s tips and lodge a complaint when dissatisfied with restaurant food and/or service. These findings are consistent with the prediction that Black American consumers tend to react more punitively on average to dissatisfactory consumer experiences than Whites and are consistent with prior scholarship linking coercive and unjust experiences to retributive behaviors. We conclude by discussing implications of these results and the need for further research on racial discrimination in U.S. restaurants and related consumer markets.