Joseph D. Bergesen

Integrated life-cycle assessment of electricity-supply scenarios confirms global environmental benefit of low-carbon technologies

Significance Life-cycle assessments commonly used to analyze the environmental costs and benefits of climate-mitigation options are usually static in nature and address individual power plants. Our paper presents, to our knowledge, the first life-cycle assessment of the large-scale implementation of climate-mitigation technologies, addressing the feedback of the electricity system onto itself and using scenario-consistent assumptions of technical improvements in key energy and material production technologies. Decarbonization of electricity generation can support climate-change mitigation and presents an opportunity to address pollution resulting from fossil-fuel combustion. Generally, renewable technologies require higher initial investments in infrastructure than fossil-based power systems. To assess the tradeoffs of increased up-front emissions and reduced operational emissions, we present, to our knowledge, the first global, integrated life-cycle assessment (LCA) of long-term, wide-scale implementation of electricity generation from renewable sources (i.e., photovoltaic and solar thermal, wind, and hydropower) and of carbon dioxide capture and storage for fossil power generation. We compare emissions causing particulate matter exposure, freshwater ecotoxicity, freshwater eutrophication, and climate change for the climate-change-mitigation (BLUE Map) and business-as-usual (Baseline) scenarios of the International Energy Agency up to 2050. We use a vintage stock model to conduct an LCA of newly installed capacity year-by-year for each region, thus accounting for changes in the energy mix used to manufacture future power plants. Under the Baseline scenario, emissions of air and water pollutants more than double whereas the low-carbon technologies introduced in the BLUE Map scenario allow a doubling of electricity supply while stabilizing or even reducing pollution. Material requirements per unit generation for low-carbon technologies can be higher than for conventional fossil generation: 11–40 times more copper for photovoltaic systems and 6–14 times more iron for wind power plants. However, only two years of current global copper and one year of iron production will suffice to build a low-carbon energy system capable of supplying the worlds electricity needs in 2050.

Thin-film photovoltaic power generation offers decreasing greenhouse gas emissions and increasing environmental co-benefits in the long term.

Thin-film photovoltaic (PV) technologies have improved significantly recently, and similar improvements are projected into the future, warranting reevaluation of the environmental implications of PV to update and inform policy decisions. By conducting a hybrid life cycle assessment using the most recent manufacturing data and technology roadmaps, we compare present and projected environmental, human health, and natural resource implications of electricity generated from two common thin-film PV technologies-copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) and cadmium telluride (CdTe)-in the United States (U.S.) to those of the current U.S. electricity mix. We evaluate how the impacts of thin films can be reduced by likely cost-reducing technological changes: (1) module efficiency increases, (2) module dematerialization, (3) changes in upstream energy and materials production, and (4) end-of-life recycling of balance of system (BOS). Results show comparable environmental and resource impacts for CdTe and CIGS. Compared to the U.S. electricity mix in 2010, both perform at least 90% better in 7 of 12 and at least 50% better in 3 of 12 impact categories, with comparable land use, and increased metal depletion unless BOS recycling is ensured. Technological changes, particularly efficiency increases, contribute to 35-80% reductions in all impacts by 2030.

Environmental Impacts of Energy‐Efficient Pyrometallurgical Copper Smelting Technologies: The Consequences of Technological Changes from 2010 to 2050

The article analyzes and discusses the environmental and natural resource impacts, benefits, and greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation potential associated with a long‐term transition to more energy‐efficient pyrometallurgical smelting technologies for the production of refined copper. Using generic data from the KGHM Polska Miedź S.A, Glogow I and II smelting facilities in Poland, this study employs life cycle assessment (LCA) to compare the environmental impacts of shaft and flash furnace‐based smelting technologies. Additionally, this analysis accounts for likely technological changes in the more energy‐efficient flash furnace smelting technologies and electricity generation from 2030 to 2050 to forecast the long‐term impacts of copper production. Life cycle impact assessment results for copper production are characterized using the ReCiPe 2008 midpoint method. LCA results show that, for most impact categories, the flash‐based technology can achieve significantly lower environmental impacts than a shaft furnace (i.e., to produce 1 ton of copper in 2010 generates, on average, a 24% lower overall impact). For climate change, transitioning from shaft furnace‐based copper production to more efficient flash furnace technology leads to decreasing GHG emissions of 29% in 2010, 50% in 2030, and 56% in 2050.

Building Energy Management Systems: Global Potentials and Environmental Implications of Deployment

One of the key drivers that influence building energy consumption is the demand for space heating. Particularly in countries with cold climates and a large stock of residential buildings with central heating, building energy management systems (BEMS) are an option to reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. These systems can be combined with existing space heating technologies and other efficiency measures, such as building insulation. They are ideal for retrofitting purposes owing to their low up‐front costs. A prospective life cycle assessment model is used to analyze the environmental impacts of the technology today, in 2030, and in 2050. This allows for a first‐ever, order‐of‐magnitude assessment of the environmental impacts of BEMS over their life cycle. The assessment is based on manufacturer information and generic life cycle inventory data for electronic components. Future impacts are based on changes in electricity generation following the International Energy Agencys 2 degree and 6 degree scenarios, and are used to assess the contribution of BEMS to global energy and GHG saving goals. Results show substantially lower life cycle GHG emissions and higher savings of environmental impacts per kilowatt‐hour of heating when compared to natural gas or electric heating. Potential net emissions savings range from approximately 0.4 kilograms carbon dioxide equivalent (kg CO‐eq) when avoiding natural gas heating to over 1 kg CO‐eq when avoiding electric heating in regions with GHG‐intensive electricity generation. At present, BEMS can avoid at least 40 times the GHG emissions that they require for production and use, when deployed in regions with cold climates.

Challenges in assessing the environmental consequences of dietary changes

Tom et al. (Environ Syst Decis 1–12, 2015) compared the energy requirements, water footprint, and greenhouse gas emissions of diet regimens recently recommended by the US Department of Agriculture. This editorial comments on a number of challenges related to the use of the results of life-cycle assessment studies to quantify the environmental impacts of dietary shifts.

Life Cycle Assessment of Solar Photovoltaic Microgrid Systems in Off-Grid Communities

Access to a reliable source of electricity creates significant benefits for developing communities. Smaller versions of electricity grids, known as microgrids, have been developed as a solution to energy access problems. Using attributional life cycle assessment, this project evaluates the environmental and energy impacts of three photovoltiac (PV) microgrids compared to other energy options for a model village in Kenya. When normalized per kilowatt hour of electricity consumed, PV microgrids, particularly PV-battery systems, have lower impacts than other energy access solutions in climate change, particulate matter, photochemical oxidants, and terrestrial acidification. When compared to small-scale diesel generators, PV-battery systems save 94-99% in the above categories. When compared to the marginal electricity grid in Kenya, PV-battery systems save 80-88%. Contribution analysis suggests that electricity and primary metal use during component, particularly battery, manufacturing are the largest contributors to overall PV-battery microgrid impacts. Accordingly, additional savings could be seen from changing battery manufacturing location and ensuring end of life recycling. Overall, this project highlights the potential for PV microgrids to be feasible, adaptable, long-term energy access solutions, with health and environmental advantages compared to traditional electrification options.