Josephine H. Shih

Interpersonal Impairment and the Prediction of Depressive Symptoms in Adolescent Children of Depressed and Nondepressed Mothers

OBJECTIVE Different pathways to youth depression should be explored. Based on an interpersonal impairment perspective on depression, the currently depressed children of depressed mothers were hypothesized to differ in predictors of their depression compared with depressed children of nondepressed mothers. Chronic social difficulties were expected to be more predictive of depressive symptoms in offspring of depressed women, while recent stressful life events were expected to predict depression in offspring of never-depressed women. METHOD A community sample of 812 fifteen-year-old children of depressed and nondepressed women was studied in Queensland, Australia, between 1996 and 1999; chronic and episodic stress in the past 6 to 12 months were examined in relation to current depressive disorders. RESULTS Depressive states in children of depressed mothers were more associated with chronic interpersonal difficulties than were the depressions of children of nondepressed women, and the latter group had greater increases in depression level associated with episodic stressors than did children of depressed women. CONCLUSIONS The results may reflect greater depression reactivity to chronic social difficulties among offspring of depressed mothers. Depressive experiences may have different predictors in subgroups of depressed youths and imply potentially different courses and needs for treatment.

Cognitive and Interpersonal Predictors of Stress Generation in Children of Affectively Ill Parents

Stress generation is a process in which individuals, through their depressive symptoms, personal characteristics, and/or behaviors, contribute to the occurrence of stressful life events. While this process has been well documented in adults, few studies have examined it in children. The present study examines whether cognitive and interpersonal vulnerability factors to depression contribute to stress generation in children, independent of their current depressive symptoms. Participants included 140 children (ages 6 to 14) and one of their parents. During an initial assessment, children completed self-report measures assessing cognitive and interpersonal vulnerability factors to depression. Children and their parents also completed measures assessing depressive symptoms. One year later, children and their parents participated in a semi-structured interview assessing the occurrence of stressful life events in the past year. Multi-level modeling results provided strong support for the stress generation process in children of affectively ill parents and highlight the importance of considering gender and age moderation effects.

Stress Generation and Depression

Publisher Summary Risk factor for depression is exposure to stress that occurs at least in part because of a persons characteristics, behaviors, and circumstances. Such dependent negative life events may be largely interpersonal in content, although it is an interesting question whether such events are universally more likely to occur or to trigger depression compared to other events. This chapter reviews research specific to depressive disorders and addresses not only the empirical evidence for stress generation, but also the factors that help to clarify its predictors and mechanisms. It is likely that residual depressive symptoms themselves impair functioning and contribute to negative life events; research also suggests that additional factors may contribute to stress generation. These include certain personality styles, as well as dysfunctional beliefs, attitudes, and cognitions, and maladaptive behaviors and social problem-solving skills. Clinical features may also increase the risk of stress generation, including comorbidity with other disorders, and likely also chronicity and number of episodes of depression. A vicious cycle of stress and depression presents challenges and opportunities for intervention and for predicting the course of depression.

Understanding the impact of prior depression on stress generation: Examining the roles of current depressive symptoms and interpersonal behaviours

Stress generation is a process in which individuals contribute to stressful life events. While research has supported an association between current depression and stress generation, it has been noted that individuals with prior depression tend to contribute to stressors even when they are no longer experiencing a depressive episode. The aim of the study is to elucidate the pathways through which prior major depression predicts interpersonal stress generation in women. Specifically, we examined current subsyndromal depressive symptoms and problematic interpersonal behaviours as potential mediators. Fifty-one college women were followed prospectively for 6 weeks. Participants were interviewed to assess current and past depression as well as stressful life events they experienced over the 6-week period. The findings suggest that prior major depression continues to have an impact even after the episode has ended, as the disorder continues to contribute to stress generation through residual depressive symptoms.

Cultural differences in daily support experiences.

Previous research has suggested that Asian Americans (AAs) are less likely to mobilize social support, and find support to be less helpful, when compared with European Americans (EAs). In a 10-day daily diary study of AA and EA college students, we hypothesized that AAs would activate support less frequently than EAs for both stressful and positive events, a cultural difference that would be mediated by group harmony values. We also predicted that AAs would find support to be less helpful, and we explored differences in the sources of support used. Results confirmed that cultural differences in support use were partially mediated by the value of maintaining group harmony through emotional restraint. AAs also perceived received support to be less helpful and more frequently used discretionary rather than kinship support sources. Findings suggest that naturalistic support experiences differ markedly for these groups, with implications for help-seeking behavior and mental health services.

A Daily Diary Study of Co-Rumination, Stressful Life Events, and Depressed Mood in Late Adolescents

The purpose of this study was to extend the research on co-rumination and depressed mood by examining the impact of co-rumination on depressed mood on a daily basis while controlling for the effects of daily stress events in a sample of late adolescents. Two-hundred and seventy-nine predominantly Caucasian college students (95 male, 184 female) completed a baseline assessment as well as morning and evening online surveys for 7 days as part of a daily diary study. Baseline assessment measured co-rumination and depressive symptoms, whereas morning surveys measured depressed mood and evening surveys included questions about depressed mood, within-day co-rumination, and daily stressful life events. Data were analyzed using Multilevel Modeling due to the daily nature of the data. Women co-ruminated more than men on a daily basis. Daily co-rumination predicted within-day increases in depressed mood while controlling for stress. Baseline co-rumination moderated the relationship between daily stressful life events and depressed mood, but daily co-rumination did not moderate this relationship. Co-rumination with closest confidant is associated with within-day worsening of depressed mood. Future research should consider the impact of co-rumination with closest confidants in addition to same-sex best friend. Implications for treatment include active consideration and discussion of patients coping and support-seeking behaviors and paying greater attention to the types of dialogue that occur within ones social support network.

The Immigrant Paradox Among Asian American Women: Are Disparities in the Burden of Depression and Anxiety Paradoxical or Explicable?

OBJECTIVE We evaluated potential explanations for advantaged mental health status among immigrant Asian American women compared to U.S.-born Asian American women. METHOD In a nationally representative sample of 1,030 women (185 U.S.-born, 368 early-life immigrants [arrived before 25 years of age], 477 late-life immigrants), we examined the hypothesis that increased exposure to social risk factors mediate nativity-based differences in lifetime prevalence of depression and anxiety disorders. Indicators of social class were also examined as protective factors enjoyed by U.S.-born women that may suppress observed nativity-based disparities. We also examined whether there were group differences in reactivity to stress in predicting disorder. RESULTS U.S.-born women were twice as likely as late-life immigrants to report lifetime history of depression (odds ratio [OR] = 2.03, 95% CI [1.35, 4.54]) and anxiety (OR = 2.12, 95% CI [1.34, 5.19]). Nativity differences in perceived discrimination, family conflict, and cultural conflict explained disparities in rates of disorder. There was no support for the contention that immigrant women were more psychologically hardy or resilient to social stress. CONCLUSION Findings suggest that the gap in mental health status between U.S.- and foreign-born Asian American women would indeed be magnified if differences in social status were accounted for, but also that ready explanations for the so-called immigrant paradox are found in differential levels of reported stress exposure.