Joshua K. Brevard

What’s Color Got To Do With It? Skin Color, Skin Color Satisfaction, Racial Identity, and Internalized Racism Among African American College Students

Although skins tone perceptions influence the African American community, less is known about how skin color satisfaction differs across complexion. Employing an intersectionality framework, the current study assessed (a) the relationships between gender, self-reported skin color, skin color satisfaction, and the private regard aspect of racial identity; (b) whether skin color satisfaction moderates the relationship between perceived skin color and racial identity; and (c) whether internalized racism relates to skin color satisfaction. African American college students (N= 191) provided their perceived skin color and completed the private regard subscale of the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity, the Nadanolitization Scale, and an abbreviated version of the Skin Color Satisfaction Scale. Hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted to test most hypotheses. Although skin color was not significantly associated with skin color satisfaction, skin color satisfaction moderated the relationship between perceived skin color and private regard. Darker skin African Americans high in skin color satisfaction reported higher private regard than those low in skin color satisfaction. Additionally, internalized racism significantly predicted skin color satisfaction. Psychosociological implications are discussed.

What Works: Effective Programs and Practices

Effective programs for African American boys should consider the culture and the context in which they live, the interaction of multiple ecological systems, and the multidimensional aspects of their environment and their circumstances. Programs should be based on sound theory, rigorous methodology, attend to culture and context, and target multiple domains and outcomes. In this chapter, several research-based programs to increase the well-being of African American boys and adolescent males are discussed. These programs target multiple domains (e.g., improvements in academics and reductions in drugs, risky sex, and delinquency) and are culturally sensitive. However, more culturally sensitive research-based programs are needed.

Schools: Expectations and Achievement

African American boys have lower academic achievement than African American girls and boys from other racial and ethnic groups. High school and college graduation rates are lower and they are more likely to face suspensions, expulsions, and disciplinary actions. Overrepresentation of African American boys in special education has resulted in some noting that educational systems for African American boys are the first pathway to correctional systems. Lower achievement among African American boys has been accounted for in part by lower expectations from teachers and parents along with discrimination. Several theoretical perspectives including oppositional culture, disidentification, stereotype threat, and critical theory help to explain gaps in achievement. Factors associated with higher academic achievement include high racial and ethnic identity, academically engaged peers, monitoring and support from family, and after-school programs.

Introduction: Contextual and Theoretical Framework

While African American boys face many challenges in education, employment, and incarceration, many do well even when living under stressful and challenging conditions. This chapter provides an introduction to the book and an overview of the demographics of African American boys including where African Americans live, family structure, and socioeconomic conditions. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory and Spencer’s Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory are reviewed as these theories provide the theoretical frameworks for understanding developmental outcomes discussed in this chapter and throughout the book. These theories support how culture and context shape the behaviors and life outcomes of African American boys and adolescents.

Peers and Peeps

This chapter explores the influence of peers on the well-being and life outcomes of African American boys and adolescents. This chapter discusses the importance of and the development of peer relationships among African American boys. Particular attention is paid to the “streets,” which often serve as the primary institution of socialization for African American males living in disorganized urban settings. The connection between street socialization and hypermasculinity is examined, along with peer interactions such as gang membership and romantic relationships.

Delinquency and Victimization

This chapter examines juvenile delinquency and related topics, including factors that attenuate these problems. It begins with a discussion of juvenile delinquency, and then discusses violence, victimization, and co-victimization, along with risk and protective factors for juvenile delinquency. The chapter also highlights the underlying factors which contribute to delinquency, including peer influence, hypermasculinity, gangs, the street code, poverty, and discrimination.