Joyce J. Elam

Inside a software design team: knowledge acquisition, sharing, and integration

ore than half the cost of the development of complex computer-based information systems (IS) is attributable to decisions made in the upstream port ion of the software d e v e l o p m e n t process; namely , requirements specification and design [20]. There is growing recognition that research on how teams actually go about making requirement determinations and design decisions can provide valuable insights for improving the quality and productivity of large-scale c o m p u t e r b a s e d IS development efforts [9, 12, 23]. Traditional models of group dynamics, group decision making, and group development are not rich enough to thoroughly explain the real-world complexities faced by software design teams. Most of this research was performed on tasks that were shorter, less complex and did not require the extensive integration of knowledge domains that characterizes software systems design [9, 12]. Knowledge is the raw material of software design teams. For complex projects, knowledge from multiple technical and functional domains is a necessity [12]. Ideally, a software design team is staffed so that both the levels and the distribution of knowledge within the team match those required for the successful completion of the project. Because of knowledge shortfalls such as the thin spread of application domain knowledge in most organizations, however, this is seldom the case [12]. In general, individual team members do not have all of the knowledge required for the project and must acquire additional information before accomplishing productive work. The sources of this information can be relevant documentation, formal training sessions, the results of trial-and-error behavior, and other team members. Group meetings are an important environment for learning, since they allow team members to share information and learn about other domains relevant to their work. Productive design activities need to revolve around the integration of the various knowledge domains. This integration leads to shared models of the problem under consideration and potential solutions. A software design team seldom starts its life with shared models of the system to be built. Instead, these models develop over time as team members learn from one another about the expected behavior of the application and the computational structures required to produce this behavior. This means that team members need to be speaking the same language (or, at least, dialects whose semantics are similar enough to facilitate communication and understanding) in order to share knowledge about the system. Knowledge acquisition, knowledge sharing, and knowledge integration a r e significant, t ime-consuming activities that precede the development of a design document. The purpose of this article is to examine how these activities unfolded over time inside an actual software design team. Two related questions with respect to this team will be resolved: 1) How do the group members acquire, share, and integrate project-relevant knowledge? 2) Do the levels of participation in these activities differ across team members? The f ind ings r epo r t ed h e r e challenge some of the conventional wisdom and common practices of managing software design teams. An initial caveat is that the design team studied here worked in a research and development environment where knowledge acquisition, sharing, and integration activities are accentuated. However, to varying degrees, these activities characterize most software projects [12]. A better understanding of the role and process of knowledge acquisition, sharing, and integration in software design has very real implications for managing large software projects, particularly in the areas of planning, staffing, and training.

Can Software Influence Creativity

The concept of decision support systems that emerged in the seventies offered the promise of computer-based tools that would enable decision makers to develop better and more creative solutions to the problems they face. The realization of this promise depends on the validity of two assumptions: (1) individuals can be helped to be more creative and (2) software, appropriately designed, can provide this help. Evidence from creativity research supports the first assumption. This paper explores the second assumption. A set of guidelines for designing DSS is developed from the creativity literature and two hypotheses involving the use of a DSS developed in accordance with these guidelines are proposed. To test these hypotheses, an experiment involving three groups of auditors from a “big eight” accounting firm was conducted. Each group was asked to respond to two different decision situations. Two groups were given separate versions of a DSS specifically selected because it contained features that were thought to enhance creativity. Another group was given no software. The results of the experiment indicate significant differences in the creativity of the responses generated by the three groups. Possible explanations for these differences are explored.

Executive information systems: their impact on executive decision making

An executive information system (EIS) is a computer-based information system designed to provide senior managers with access to information relevant to their management activities. The use of these systems by executives may become a particularly important component of their decision making behavior. The effects of EIS use on aspects of the decision making process are examined by surveying 46 executive users of EIS. The frequency of EIS use and the length of time of EIS use are shown to increase problem identification speed, decision making speed, and the extent of analysis in decision making. >

Using case study research to build theories of IT implementation

In this paper, we present and illustrate how the approach proposed by Eisenhardt (1989) for building theories from case study research can help researchers understand and explain the inherently dynamic nature of numerous IT phenomena. The approach, which adopts a positivist view of research, relies on past literature and empirical data as well as on the insights of the researcher to build incrementally more powerful theories. We describe in some detail how this methodology was applied in a particular research study on IT implementation and how the use of this approach contributed to the discovery of a number of new perspectives and empirical insights. Furthermore, we discuss when it is appropriate to follow, to ignore, or to modify the suggestions made by Eisenhardt. Overall, using Eisenhardt’s approach as a starting point, our objective is to provide a more complete and detailed guide for using case studies to build theories within the MIS field.

Semantic Structuring in Analyst Acquisition and Representation of Facts in Requirements Analysis

The determination of information requirements is one of the most crucial stages in the software design and development process (Montezemi 1988). It is during this stage that the greatest degree of interaction occurs between the analyst and the user (Lauer et al. 1992). Despite the system development method employed, the functional success of many aspects of requirements determination ultimately rests on how well the user(s) and analyst(s) communicate (Holtzblatt and Beyer 1995). The purpose of this paper is to report the results obtain from a laboratory experiment that investigated the effects of a semantic structuring process of inquiry on the process of interview-derived information acquisition and the subsequent overall correctness of the logical representation of the facts obtained. The study focused on the specific question types used by systems analysts and the role their semantic construction pla yed in representing the information flows in a business system. Three underlying semantic patterns of questions emerged from the analysis. The results showed that certain question types were associated with increased accuracy of logical representations re gardless of analyst experience level. Further, the semantic and process patterns that emerged were also directly related to accurate representation of facts and demonstrated an experience-level independence. The results indicate that disciplined questioning strategies are not necessarily learned from practice and they can be improved via structured training. Each of the patterns provide insight into the questioning process employed and the effectiveness of different strategies of inquiry. Implications for both the practitioner and the academic research communities with regard to analyst interview behavior are discussed.

A Comparative Study of How Experts and Novices Use a Decision Aid to Solve Problems in Complex Knowledge Domains

This paper reports the results of a study that examined the way that professionals used a particular decision aid, spreadsheet software, to address a business-oriented task. The professionals were divided into four groups, depending on whether they were experts or novices in the functional area of business represented by the task and on whether they were experts or novices in the use of spreadsheet software. The physical interactions as well as the thought processes underlying these interactions were captured. Results of the study indicated that a lack of expertise in spreadsheet software usage inhibited the application of functional area knowledge. The behavior and outcomes of the functional area expert/spreadsheet novice group did not match those of the functional area expert/spreadsheet expert group. In fact, they paralleled more closely those of the other two groups that did not possess functional area knowledge. Results of the study also indicated that individuals need to obtain a level of expertise in using a decision aid before they are able to apply their functional area knowledge to the problem at hand.

EIS adoption, use, and impact: the executive perspective

Abstract Executive decision making continues to gain in importance as competitive situations increase in the fast-paced, global economy facing organizations today. Until recently, however, few executives have had easy access to the timely, complete, and accurate information they need for strategic decision making. The emergence of Executive Information Systems (EIS) provides the opportunity to change this situation. This research examines the role and use of information by senior executives in three different organizations in order to gain some insights on the adoption, use, and impact of EIS. The results of this examination are presented as a series of testable propositions.

Overcoming the problems in information systems development by building and sustaining commitment

Abstract The successful development of information systems requires that numerous problems encountred during the development process be solved. Through an in-depth study of one large system development effort, this paper shows how the resolution of many of these problems requires the building and sustaining of commitment of the various stakeholders. Tactics that were employed to build and sustain commitment are also described. The problems, the need for commitment, and the tactics used to build and sustain commitment are linked to six issues which arose from the strategic potential of this particular system (large investments and a desire to develop the system quickly), the interorganizational nature of the system (dependence on the system partner and system complexity), and outsourcing of the systems development (dependence on the vendor and need for cooperation with the vendor). Some implications of the papers findings for future research and practice are examined.

Physicians acceptance of clinical information systems: an empirical look at attitudes, expectations and skills

Attitudes of physicians towards actual and future clinical applications were assessed by distributing a seven-page questionnaire to all active attending physicians at the University of Miami/Jackson Memorial Medical Center. A total of 219 questionnaires were returned, for a response rate of 26%. From the results of this study, we can paint an interesting portrait of attending physicians attitudes and expectations towards computer applications in health care. Suggestions for successful implementation of clinical information systems are provided for healthcare administrators and medical informatics professionals.

Introducing Information Technology in the Clinical Setting: Lessons Learned in a Trauma Center

Using a case study methodology, we examined the implementation of a nursing flow sheet system in the trauma center of a large, not-for-profit, teaching hospital. Findings add new insights to the existing body of knowledge in the information technology and medical informatics fields. First, results reveal that the success of clinical information systems requires a proactive stance where key actors anticipate and address the challenges ahead and capitalize on opportunities. Second, empirical evidence indicates that project outcomes ultimately depend on how the implementation process is managed and what the organization and its members do with the system once it is introduced. Finally, the case at hand shows that the nature and overall quality of the implementation strategy can be largely predicted by the key actors involved in the project, given their own background, skills, interest, and level of motivation.