Jozef M. Pacyna

Towards a global historical emission inventory for selected PCB congeners - a mass balance approach: 3. An update

Previously published estimates of the global production, consumption and atmospheric emissions of 22 individual PCB congeners [Breivik K, Sweetman A, Pacyna JM, Jones KC. Towards a global historical emission inventory for selected PCB congeners - a mass balance approach. 1. Global production and consumption. Sci Total Environ 2002a; 290: 181-198.; Breivik K, Sweetman A, Pacyna JM, Jones KC. Towards a global historical emission inventory for selected PCB congeners--a mass balance approach. 2. Emissions. Sci Total Environ 2002b; 290: 181-198.] have provided useful information for later studies attempting to interpret contaminant levels in remote areas as well as in the global environment. As a result of the need for more contemporary emission data (following the year 2000), an update of this emission database is presented. This exercise takes into account new information on PCB production in Poland, as well as new data on the chemical composition of various technical mixtures for which less information had been available. The methodology to estimate temporal trends of PCB emissions associated with various types of PCB usage is improved. Projected emissions up to year 2100 are presented to facilitate predictions of future environmental exposure. The national emission data for each of the 114 countries considered is spatially resolved on a 1 degrees x1 degrees grid for each congener and year, using population density as a surrogate.

Towards a global historical emission inventory for selected PCB congeners--a mass balance approach. 1. Global production and consumption.

Information on the historical global production and consumption of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) is urgently needed for estimating PCB fluxes to the environment and for interpreting global contamination patterns by these pollutants. This study presents the methodology, principal uncertainties and selected results from an inventory, aiming to quantify the global production and consumption of total PCBs as well as 22 PCB congeners. The available data on the historical production of PCBs and the chemical composition of various technical mixtures have been compiled from the literature. For some producers with less detailed information, the production of individual PCB constituents has been estimated to derive a global estimate for individual homologues and selected congeners. Information on imports, exports and consumption, as well as restrictions on production and imports, has further been compiled for individual countries. These data, along with assumptions on the trade between countries and regions, have been utilised to derive an estimate of the global historical consumption pattern. Although there are substantial uncertainties involved in these estimates, important aspects governing the large scale temporal and spatial patterns are most likely captured in these estimates. In particular, the information on imports and exports for the principal users of PCBs around the time of peak production is considered to be fairly reliable. The estimates account for a reported historical global production of approximately 1.3 million t PCBs, more than 70% of which are tri-, tetra- and pentachlorinated biphenyls. The results further suggest that almost 97% of the global historical use of PCBs have occurred in the Northern Hemisphere.

Global Emission of Mercury from Anthropogenic Sources in 1995

An estimate of the global emission of mercury from anthropogenicsources in 1995 has been prepared. Major emphasis is placed onemissions from stationary combustion sources, non-ferrous metalproduction, pig iron and steel production, cement production andwaste disposal. About three quarters of the total emission,estimated to be about 1900 tonnes, was from combustion of fuels, particularly coal combustion in China, India, and South and NorthKorea. In general, the Asian countries contribute about 56% to the global emissions of mercury to the atmosphere. Europe and North America seem to contribute less than 25%. The major chemical form of mercury emitted to the atmosphere is gaseouselemental mercury, contributing with about 53% to the totalemissions, followed by gaseous bivalent mercury with 37%. The Hg emissions on particles contribute only about 10% to the total emissions. Again, Asia contributes about 50% to the totalemissions of all individual chemical forms of mercury.

Estimation of the atmospheric emissions of trace elements from anthropogenic sources in Europe

Abstract The total emissions of 15 elements from various anthropogenic sources in Europe are presented here. The data were obtained on the basis of trace element emission factors and statistical information on the consumption of ores, rocks and fuels and the production of various types of industrial goods. Available information on types of fuels, ores and rocks and differences in manufacturing techniques used in the European countries have been taken into account. Different types of dust removal installations and their effectiveness have also been considered, as well as import-export relations of fuels and ores between particular countries. The author assessed the spatial distributions of trace element emissions based on information on location of industrial areas in Europe and plant capacities.

Socioeconomic Consequences of Mercury Use and Pollution

Abstract In the past, human activities often resulted in mercury releases to the biosphere with little consideration of undesirable consequences for the health of humans and wildlife. This paper outlines the pathways through which humans and wildlife are exposed to mercury. Fish consumption is the major route of exposure to methylmercury. Humans can also receive toxic doses of mercury through inhalation of elevated concentrations of gaseous elemental mercury. We propose that any effective strategy for reducing mercury exposures requires an examination of the complete life cycle of mercury. This paper examines the life cycle of mercury from a global perspective and then identifies several approaches to measuring the benefits of reducing mercury exposure, policy options for reducing Hg emissions, possible exposure reduction mechanisms, and issues associated with mercury risk assessment and communication for different populations.

European emissions of atmospheric mercury from anthropogenic sources in 1995

Abstract Estimates of atmospheric emissions of mercury from anthropogenic sources in Europe in 1995 are presented with the information on emissions of both total mercury and its major chemical and physical forms. The 1995 anthropogenic emissions of total emissions were estimated to be about 342 tonnes , a decrease of 45% compared to these emissions in 1990. Combustion of fuels, particularly coal has been the major source of anthropogenic emissions contributing to more than half to the total emissions. The emissions from coal combustion have not changed significantly over the past decade. Major decrease has been estimated for emissions from industrial processes, particularly the chlor-alkali production using the Hg cell process. In 1995 the European emissions of anthropogenic mercury contributed about 13% to the global emissions of this element from anthropogenic sources. The anthropogenic Hg emissions in Europe were still higher than the natural emissions in the region, estimated to be about 250– 300 tonnes per year. The accuracy of estimates of anthropogenic emissions of Hg in Europe in 1995 is considered to be between 25 and 50%. The most accurate seem to be the estimates for combustion sources, while the most incomplete data were collected and/or estimated for waste disposal. The emissions of gaseous elemental mercury contributed about 61% to the emissions of the total mercury, while the contribution of gaseous bivalent mercury and particulate mercury was 32 and 7%, respectively.

Mercury emissions to the atmosphere from natural and anthropogenic sources in the Mediterranean region

Abstract This report discusses past, current and projected mercury emissions to the atmosphere from major industrial sources, and presents a first assessment of the contribution to the regional mercury budget from selected natural sources. Emissions (1995 estimates) from fossil fuels combustion (29.8 t yr −1 ) , cement production (28.8 t yr −1 ) and incineration of solid wastes (27.6 t yr −1 ) , all together account for about 82% of the regional anthropogenic total (105.7 t yr −1 ) . Other industrial sources in the region are smelters (4.8 t yr −1 ) , iron–steel plants (4.8 t yr −1 ) and other minor sources (chlor-alkali plants, crematoria, chemicals production) that have been considered together in the miscellaneous category (9.6 t yr −1 ) . Regional emissions from anthropogenic sources increased at a rate of 3% yr −1 from 1983 to 1995 and are projected to increase at a rate of 1.9% yr −1 in the next 25 years, if no improvement in emission control policy occurs. On a country-by-country basis, France is the leading emitter country with 22.6 t yr −1 followed by Turkey (16.1 t yr −1 ) , Italy (11.4 t yr −1 ) , Spain (9.1 t yr −1 ) , the former Yugoslavia 7.9 ( t yr −1 ) , Morocco (6.9 t yr −1 ) , Bulgaria (6.8 t yr −1 ) , Egypt (6.1 t yr −1 ) , Syria (3.6 t yr −1 ) , Libya (2.9 t yr −1 ) , Tunisia (2.8 t yr −1 ) and Greece (2.7 t yr −1 ) , whereas the remaining countries account for less than 7% of the regional total. The annual emission from natural sources is 110 t yr −1 , although this figure only includes the volatilisation of elemental mercury from surface waters and emissions from volcanoes, whereas the contribution due to the degassing of mercury from top soil and vegetation has not been included in this first assessment. Therefore, natural and anthropogenic sources in the Mediterranean region release annually about 215 t of mercury, which represents a significant contribution to the total mercury budget released in Europe and to the global atmosphere.

Mapping 1995 global anthropogenic emissions of mercury

Abstract This paper presents maps of anthropogenic Hg emissions worldwide within a 1°×1° latitude/longitude grid system in 1995. As such, the paper is designed for modelers simulating the Hg transport within air masses and Hg deposition to aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Maps of total Hg emissions and its three main chemical species: elemental gaseous Hg, divalent gaseous Hg, and particle-associated Hg are presented. The main emissions occur in southeast Asia (particularly in China), South Africa, Central and Eastern Europe, and the Eastern United States. These are the regions where coal combustion is the main source of electricity and heat production. Waste incineration adds to these emissions in the Eastern United States. Emissions of total Hg and its three species are quite similar in terms of their (global) spatial distributions. They reflect the worldwide distribution of coal consumption in large power plants, industrial burners, and small combustion units, such as residential and commercial furnaces.

Trace element composition and origin of the atmospheric aerosol in the Norwegian arctic

Ninety-eight filter samples of < 2.5 μm aerosol were collected in late winter of 1983, 1984 and 1986, and in the summer of 1984 at Ny Alesund, Spitsbergen and Vardo, Norway, and analyzed for 42 elements. The winter atmospheric concentrations and aerosol compositions were similar at the two sites. In summer, atmospheric concentrations were significantly lower than in winter, particularly at Ny Alesund and for the metallic pollutants, with elements such as V, Zn, As and Sb exhibiting 20–50 times lower levels than in winter. Application of absolute principal components analysis to the Ny Alesund winter data yielded three components, which were identified as a general pollution component, crustal dust and sea-salt. Three components were obtained for the aerosol at Vardo as well, but component 1 was here a mixed pollutant/soil dust component, whereas component 2 represented a separate pollution source area, which was identified as the Kola peninsula. This region was responsible for over 70% of the airborne As, Se and In at Vardo. The Ny Alesund aerosol data were subjected to chemical mass balance source apportionment, using a seven- or eight-element tracer system and regional signatures from eastern North America, Europe and the U.S.S.R. The results indicated that only 10% of the mass of the tracer elements came from eastern North America, and that the U.S.S.R. and Europe contributed in a 6040 proportion during winter and in a 2575 proportion in summer. Only 12% of the airborne Se, observed at Ny Alesund in summer, could be attributed to the Eurasian source regions. Evidence is presented that the unexplained Se has a marine, biogenic origin. Arguments are also given to suggest that a sizeable fraction, perhaps up to 50%, of the non-sea-salt sulfate at Ny Alesund in summer results from gas-to-particle conversion of biogenic, reduced gaseous sulfur species, such as dimethyl sulfide, which are released by the oceans.

Four decades of gasoline lead emissions and control policies in Europe: a retrospective assessment

Over decades, large amounts of the neurotoxin lead were released into the European environment, mostly from gasoline lead additives. Emissions were growing unabatedly until the 1970s, when a series of regulations on the allowed gasoline lead content were adopted. As a result, in the 1990s most gasoline contained only small amounts of lead. We have examined this case of environmental pollution and regulation, and performed a retrospective assessment of the extent of regional-scale lead pollution and the effects of gasoline lead regulations in Europe. With the help of a regional climate model, NCEP re-analyses, spatially disaggregated lead emissions from road traffic and point sources, and various local data, the airborne pathways and depositions of gasoline lead in Europe since 1958 were reconstructed. It turns out that this approach is successful in describing the time-variable, spatially disaggregated deposition of gasoline lead. Additional data from analyses of concentrations in biota, including plant leaves, mussels and human blood, allows an assessment about the impact of the lead phase-out on the quality of the environment. Demonstrating the success of the lead policies, concentrations in leaves and human blood have steadily declined since the early 1980s. At the same time, the economic repercussions that had been feared did not emerge. Instead, the affected mineral oil and car manufacturing industries in Germany (our case-study) were able to deal with the effort without incurring significant extra costs. We suggest that our method of quantitatively reconstructing and anticipating fluxes and depositions of substances can be applied to other relevant substances as well, such as, for example, Persistent Organic Pollutants, radioactive substances or pollens.