Juarez Carlos Brito Pezzuti

A review on human attitudes towards reptiles in Brazil

For many millennia humans and reptiles have interacted, but the attitude of humans towards these animals has depended on culture, environment, and personal experience. At least 719 reptile species are known to occur in Brazil and about 11% of this fauna has been exploited for many different purposes, including bushmeat, leather, ornamental and magic/religious uses, and as folk medicines. Brazil can therefore serve as an interesting case study for better understanding reptile use by human societies, and the present paper catalogues some of the reptile species being used in Brazil and discusses implications for their conservation. A literature review indicated that 81 reptile species are culturally important in this country, with 47 (58%) species having multiple uses, 54 being used for medicinal purposes, 38 as food, 28 for ornamental or decorative purposes, 20 used in magic/religious practices, 18 as pets, and 40 are commonly killed when they come into contact with humans. Regarding their conservation status, 30 (37.5%) are included on States Red List, Brazilian Red List or the IUCN Red List. There are many forms of interaction between reptiles and humans in Brazil—although most of them are quite negative in terms of wildlife conservation—which reinforces the importance of understanding such uses and interactions in the context of protecting reptiles in Brazil. A better understanding of the cultural, social, and traditional roles of these reptiles is fundamental to establishing management plans for their sustainable use.

Hunting of jaguars and pumas in the Tapajós-Arapiuns Extractive Reserve, Brazilian Amazonia.

We surveyed the Tapajos–Arapiuns Extractive Reserve in Brazilian Amazonia to investigate hunting of jaguars Panthera onca and pumas Puma concolor . We interviewed 115 people in 45 villages in 2007–2008, and recorded numbers of jaguars and pumas killed and the circumstances associated with each killing. At least 32 jaguars and 22 pumas were killed in the Reserve, most within the last 10 years. However, these are underestimates because people probably did not mention all kills during interviews. The first-order jackknife suggests that the actual mortality for the two species is almost double that reported. Using data from 2006–2007 as a reference we estimated a minimum mortality of 12 jaguars and seven pumas per year in the Reserve. Most animals were killed during chance encounters, a large number of these elicited by domestic dogs. Hunting motivated by livestock predation or perceived risks to human life were rare. Hunters kill large carnivores on sight and thus one alternative to reduce hunting is to take measures that will decrease encounter rates, such as forbidding hunting with dogs. Education and extension programmes are needed to ensure the long-term coexistence of humans and large carnivores in this Reserve.

Etnografia e manejo de recursos naturais pelos índios Deni, Amazonas, Brasil

Studies concerning the use of multiple natural resources by Amazonian indians are scarce. This work presents a portrait of how the Deni Indians, inhabitants of an area between two of the most important white-water rivers of the Amazon basin (Jurua and Purus Rivers), exploit natural resources in their territory. The Deni exploit both the upland and floodplain forests. They are a mix of horticulturalists and hunter-gatherers, using their whole territory to obtain what they need to live. As a rule, they move their settlements periodically, avoiding local resource depletion. The Deni modify the landscape at a local level, causing an increase in resource availability. Abandoned villages, fruit orchards and crops are places where floristic and faunistic resources concentrate and are systematically exploited. The impacts of such management are apparently minimal. For the Deni society natural resources are the only way to get goods for survival, but it is inserted in the periphery of a capitalist system which exploits and will continue to exploit natural resources in order to produce a surplus for the acquisition of industrialized products, independently of external judgements. This should be the starting point to evaluate sustainability in this local management system.

Population structure and allometry of Podocnemis unifilis (Testudines, Podocnemididae) in a protected area upstream Belo Monte dam in Xingu River, Brazil

Amazon river turtles are increasingly threatened by habitat loss and alteration due to the Brazilian energy policy based on construction of hydroelectric dams, meanwhile, populational studies remain scarce. We described the population structure, and established body allometric relationships of Podocnemis unifilis in the Terra do Meio Ecological Station in the Iriri River, tributary of the Xingu River upstream the Belo Monte dam under construction Turtles were captured by hand net and diving in 2012 and 2013 dry seasons, and 2013 rainy season. A total of 728 males, 296 females and four juveniles were captured. Adult sex ratio was male-biased by 9.15 ♂:1 ♀. Females were significantly larger than males. Mean straight carapace length was 268.9 ± 46.7 mm (165 - 403) for females; and 232.7 ± 24.8 mm (167 - 303) for males. The sexes were morphologically distinct in function of a proportionally larger plastron, and higher carapace, on females. Allometric relationships between straight carapace length and other morphometric traits were strong for males (R2 range = 0.87 - 0.96 and females (R2 range =0.79 - 0.98. Exploitation of P. unifilis in biomass extirpated from the Middle Xingu River may be estimated from body parts found post-consumption by the presented regressions.

Nesting Site and Hatching Success of Podocnemis unifilis (Testudines: Podocnemididae) in a Floodplain Area in Lower Amazon River, Pará, Brazil

Abstract. In turtles, the selection of the nesting area is critical for the survival of the embryos. This study investigated the environmental characteristics of nesting areas selected by Podocnemis unifilis and the spatial distribution of the nests, as well as the influence of these factors on hatching success in a floodplain area of the lower Amazon River in Brazil. The influences of the nesting date, depth of the nest, height above the river level, distance to the river and to vegetation, grain size of the substrate, and beach slope on hatching success were evaluated. Nests and randomly selected points were compared to determine if the nest sites differed from other locations on the beach, and if the females exercised control over this choice. We observed that females selected the higher sites, far from the river and next to vegetation for nesting. The nests were distributed along the beach and in the steeper “cut bank” along the outer side of bends. The main causes for loss of nests were flooding, predation and human collecting. The height of the nest above the river affected the probability of nest flooding when the river began to rise. Predation and collecting affected mainly the first nests of the season, and the collected nests also were closer to the river and vegetation, and sited higher on the beach. Keeping the nests in their natural environment is the most appropriate conservation strategy, which can be combined with protection by the local residents.

Effects of the Nesting Environment on Embryonic Development, Sex Ratio, and Hatching Success in Podocnemis unifilis (Testudines: Podocnemididae) in an Area of Várzea Floodplain on the Lower Amazon River in Brazil

The nesting site selected by a female turtle influences the temperature and humidity of the incubating eggs, which affects the development, survival, and sex of the embryo and the subsequent developmental phases. The present study evaluated the effects of environmental variables on the duration of incubation, hatching success, and sex ratio of hatchlings of Podocnemis unifilis in an area of várzea swamp on the lower Amazon River in Brazil, during the 2007 and 2009 nesting seasons. Nests were located, marked, and monitored, and physical and environmental characteristics were measured. The temperature of the nests was measured, and hatchlings were collected to determine the sex ratio. The mean temperature, vegetation cover, and nesting date influenced the duration of the incubation period, and the grain size of the substrate influenced hatchling survival. The sex ratio differed between the years and was female-biased in 2007 and male-biased in 2009, emphasizing the need for further long-term studies of the reproductive cycle in chelonians.

Effects of the Hydrological Cycle and Human Settlements on the Population Status of Podocnemis unifilis (Testudines: Podocnemididae) in the Xingu River, Brazil

Abstract Podocnemis unifilis is found throughout the Amazon basin, where it has been harvested as a highly valued source of animal protein since precolonial times. Harvesting rates are also lower during the flooding season due to the availability of habitat for turtle dispersal. This study investigated the effects of the hydrological cycle and human impacts on the abundance and population structure of the species on the middle Xingu River between September 2007 and March 2008. The highest density of basking turtles was recorded during the flooding period, while the number of specimens captured in hand nets was greater during low water. Density and capture rates varied positively with increasing distance from Altamira, the study areas main urban center. Consequently, the abundance of P. unifilis was affected negatively by proximity to urban centers. In the Great Bend area of the Xingu River, densities and abundance were lower, and the mean size of the animals was smaller. These results likely reflect the effects on local stocks of the presence of local gold-prospecting operations and, thus, more harvesting pressure on the P. unifilis population. The sex ratio was biased in favor of males (1.90∶1), possibly as a result of preferential harvesting of females, which are larger in size than males and are often laden with eggs. Further long-term studies are needed to better understand the impact of anthropogenic pressures on long-lived organisms such as turtles. In addition, such information would aid the ecological sustainability of turtles in the Amazon Basin that provide rural communities with subsistence resource.

Age structure of the Vulnerable white-lipped peccary Tayassu pecari in areas under different levels of hunting pressure in the Amazon Forest

Subsistence hunting can change the demographic structure of wild mammal populations, increasing the pro- portion of young animals, inducing females to reproduce early and increasing litter sizes. We examined the relation- ship between hunting pressure and age structure in the Vulnerable white-lipped peccary Tayassu pecari, analysing the distribution of age classes at seven sites in the region Terra do Meio in the Brazilian Amazon. These sites differ in the number of human inhabitants and hence were subject to differing hunting pressures. We completed semi- structured interviews with local people to assess the import- ance of hunting and of the white-lipped peccary as food. We also estimated the age of hunted white-lipped peccaries by assessing tooth eruption and tooth wear in skulls of hunted individuals. Our results indicated that the white-lipped pec- cary was the most frequently hunted terrestrial animal in the region. Fishing, followed by hunting, provided the main sources of animal protein. Our data suggest there is no rela- tionship between age structure and hunting at the study sites. The social structure and mobility of white-lipped pec- caries seem to minimize the effects of hunting on age struc- ture. Our results, similar to previous studies, show that the age structure of the white-lipped peccary is robust to hunt- ing impacts. Other factors may have stronger effects on age structure than subsistence hunting. We suggest that defor- estation may explain the prevalence of older individuals in peccary populations to the north of our study sites.

Variabilidade espacial do conforto térmico e a segregação social do espaço urbano na cidade de Belém, PA

O presente trabalho vem contribuir com o estudo do clima urbano na cidade de Belem durante a epoca menos chuvosa, juntamente com uma analise das questoes da segregacao social deste espaco urbano. Foi realizada uma campanha de coleta de dados meteorologicos durante alguns dias na epoca menos chuvosa da regiao para se calcular o indice de conforto termico nos bairros e compara-los com as tipologias sociais caracteristicas de cada bairro. Os resultados indicaram que as zonas da cidade menos confortaveis foram a Oeste e a Central, pois sao mais urbanizadas e possuem menos vegetacao que as demais areas, enquanto que as zonas mais confortaveis foram a Leste e Noroeste, que possuem mais areas vegetadas e predominância de edificacoes baixas. As analises indicaram que nao existe um padrao bem definido entre as tipologias sociais dos bairros e suas condicoes de conforto termico, pois as caracteristicas da superficie sao mais significativas para as mudancas microclimaticas locais.

Hatching and Emergence Patterns in the Yellow-Spotted River Turtle, Podocnemis unifilis (Testudines: Podocnemididae), in the Várzea Floodplains of the Lower Amazon River in Santarém, Brazil

Abstract In reptiles, the hatching and emergence of a single clutch may be synchronized or may take place over a number of days, weeks, or even months, depending primarily on the microenvironment of the nest. The present study focused on the patterns of hatching and emergence of Podocnemis unifilis hatchlings in an area of várzea floodplain on the lower Amazon River in Santarém, in the Brazilian state of Pará, in 2007 and 2009. Two groups of nests were monitored for hatching and emergence, with the nests in one group being undisturbed during the entire study period. The difference between the oviposition–hatching and oviposition–emergence intervals was determined based on the monitoring of these processes in the monitored clutches. Hatchlings took 1.5 d to leave the eggshell and the eggs at the top of the nest hatched first. The size of the clutch influenced the length of the interval between the first and last hatching. Most hatchlings emerged from a nest during a single night. Hatchlings in late nests and those closer to vegetation took significantly longer to emerge. The hatching–emergence interval was greater in 2007 (11.0 d) than in 2009 (7.3 d). This study contributes to the understanding of hatching and emergence patterns in P. unifilis and the physical and environmental factors that influence them, including the variation between reproductive seasons.