Judith N. Martin

Behavioral categories of intercultural communication competence: Everyday communicators' perceptions

Abstract This paper reports the development of a behaviorally-based inventory of social skills related to impressions of communicative competence, grounded in the perceptions of everyday communicators. The study examined two variables: (a) the cultural context (inter vs. intra) and (b) the locus of the communication (speaker vs. other). Six hundred and two respondents were asked to imagine they had just completed a dyadic interaction, in one of four cultural contexts: with (a) another American, (b) an international student; nationality not specified, (c) a Japanese student, or (d) a German student. They were then asked to describe (a) what they would do and (b) what the other interactant would do in order to create a favorable impression and to be perceived as a competent communicator. Their responses were analyzed using standard content analysis procedures and four general dimensions emerged: one communicative function dimension and three specific behavioral dimensions (nonverbal, content/topic, and conversational management). Respondents identified 20–30 “behaviors” in each of these four dimensions that were fairly consistent for both loci (speaker, other). Most significant was the conceptual distinction made between the function dimension which comprised general statements of impressions (e.g., be friendly, be polite, show interest) and the other dimensions which comprised specific behaviors (smile, talk about topics of mutual interest, ask questions, etc.). Results also indicated that an additional set of competencies appears to be required for intercultural interactions, dealing with language difficulties and topic differences. The findings are examined in relation to previous research and their application to future research and training.

The intercultural reentry: Conceptualization and directions for future research

Abstract While there has been extensive research on the cultural adjustment of sojourners to a foreign culture, there has been a dearth of literature examining the adjustment of returning sojourners to their home culture (reentry). In order to further understanding of this phenomenon, this article discusses the reentry process as one type of cultural adjustment. First, reentry is defined and described. Secondly, research investigating the two processes of adjustment to a foreign culture and readjustment to the home culture is reviewed, and the two processes are compared and contrasted. Finally, suggestions are made concerning future research.

The relationship between student sojourner perceptions of intercultural competencies and previous sojourn experience

Abstract This study investigated the relationship between perceived intercultural competence and sojourn experience. Three groups of student sojourners with varying amounts of intercultural experience (none, less than three months, 3–12 months) completed an 18-item questionnaire measuring four general areas of intercultural competence, drawn from previous literature. First, sojourner ratings were submitted to factor analysis which confirmed the four conceptual dimensions found in previous literature, with slight modifications: Awareness of Self and Culture, Awareness of Implications of Cultural Differences, Interpersonal Flexibility and Ability to Facilitate Communication. Scales were constructed from the individual items and ratings of the three sojourner groups were compared on ratings of their perceived competence on the four dimensions. Results of the statistical analysis revealed significant differences among the three groups on two of the four dimensions of intercultural competence: Sojourners with the most intercultural experience (3–12 months) rated their ability significantly higher than those with no experience on: Awareness of Self and Culture, and Ability to Facilitate Communication. Results are examined for implications for future research and application.

Ramifications of Revealing Private Information: A Gender Gap.

The study examined the frequency with which men (N = 126) and women (N = 126) anticipated positive and negative ramifications to disclosure of information in four topic areas: Parental, achievement, sexual, and global. The findings indicate that men predicted more negative ramifications for all topics than women, while women predicted more positive ramifications than men. In terms of topic, men predicted more negative ramifications than women when they were disclosing information about achievement. Overall, it was found that respondents expected more positive than negative ramifications. However, when topic was considered, respondents predicted negative ramifications most frequently for the sexual topic and least frequently for the achievement topic. Implications were discussed in terms of boundary regulation and achievement orientation for men and women.

Communication in the intercultural reentry: Student sojourners'perceptions of change in reentry relationship

Abstract This article first presents a theoretical rationale for investigating the role of communication in reentry relationships, then describes the results of a study investigating student sojouners (N = 173) perceptions of positive and negative changes in three types of reentry relationships (parent, sibling, and friend). Results of statistical analyses revealed that the degree of positive and negative change reported by the sojourners varied with the particular type of relationship. Specifically, relationships with parents and siblings were perceived to have changed more positively than negatively. This somewhat contradicts previous research characterizing reentry relationships as problematic. Relationships with friends were perceived to have changed both negatively and positively. These results are interpreted from various theoretical perspectives and the author speculates on the specific role of communication in each type of reentry relationship.

Prerequisite conditions for self‐disclosing: A gender issue

Using a scheme previously developed by the authors to define conceptually self‐disclosure, this study focuses on one dimension found in that investigation— prerequisite for disclosure. The research examines gender differences in perceived importance placed on four conditions: setting, receiver, sender, and relationship characteristics judged to be needed before disclosing private information about oneself to others. The study also looks at the influence of topic on males’ and females’ use of conditions. Results suggest that women find sender and receiver characteristics more important as prerequisite conditions for self‐disclosure than do men. No significant effect of topic on the use of conditions was found for men or women.

Predeparture Orientation: Preparing College Sojourners for Intercultural Interaction.

Each year, thousands of U.S. college students study abroad. However, many students do not achieve the potential benefits of their intercultural experience because they are not equipped for the demands of living and learning in a foreign country. This article describes a course designed to prepare students for intercultural interaction, from a communication perspective. This course and a companion “reentry”; course (Koester, 1984) are part of an institutional attempt to help students integrate the study abroad experience with their on‐campus learning. The first part of the course is devoted to theoretical frameworks for understanding intercultural interaction. The latter part of the course focuses on applications of intercultural communication theory.

Selected Linguistic Sex Differences during Initial Social Interactions of Same-Sex and Mixed-Sex Student Dyads.

Effects of sex of speaker and sex of dyad partner on selected linguistic variables were examined in four‐minute segments of twenty conversations between previously unacquainted college students. Five male dyads, five female dyads, and ten mixed dyads were studied. Three significant interaction effects were found between sex of speaker and sex of partner or dyad compositions. Males and females produced about the same number of qualifying words (e.g., “maybe,”; “sort of) when talking to males, but males produced fewer and females produced more qualifying words when talking to females. Both males and females produced more false starts (a kind of nonfluency) when speaking to someone of their own sex than when speaking to someone of the opposite sex. Inequality between dyad members in number of words spoken was greater in female dyads than in male or mixed dyads. The results may suggest a more relaxed pattern of talk within same‐sex dyads, especially among women.

Training issues in cross-cultural orientation

Abstract In this article the author presents an overview of the subsequent articles in this special issue of IJIR. The articles were originally presented as papers at a seminar held in Minneapolis in November 1984: “Cross-Cultural Orientation: Theories, Practices, Problems and Solutions. ” The author first reviews each article, highlighting the major contribution of each author and then identifies common themes that emerge in the papers. Finally, she presents several areas that need to be addressed by researchers and practitioners in conceptualizing, designing, and implementing cross-cultural orientation training.

Patterns of communication in three types of reentry relationships: An exploratory study

This study examined 173 student sojourners perceptions of their communication in three types of reentry relationships (with parents, siblings, and friends). Students who had returned from living abroad were asked in a survey questionnaire to (1) evaluate their current communication and (2) describe specific communication changes in these relationships. Their responses were content‐analyzed, revealing six dimensions of communication change which support, in part, previous findings on communication in relationships that are in transition. Subsequent statistical analyses revealed that the dimensions of communication change varied with the three types of relationships, contributing to an understanding of the role of communication in reentry relationships.