Judith Westerink

Dealing with Sustainability Trade-Offs of the Compact City in Peri-Urban Planning Across European City Regions

The compact city has become a leading concept in the planning of peri-urban areas. The compact city concept is often advocated as “sustainable” because of claims that include lower emissions and conservation of the countryside. The literature shows, however, that there are certain trade-offs in striving for compaction, especially between environmental and social aspects of sustainability. In this article, we describe expressions of the compact city concept in the planning practice of several European urban sample regions, as well as policies and developments that contradict the compact city. We look at examples of positive and negative impacts of the compact city that were observed in the sample regions. Further, we discuss attempts by planners to deal with sustainability trade-offs. Being aware that developments in the peri-urban areas are closely connected to those in the inner city, we compare the sample regions in order to learn how the compact city concept has been used in planning peri-urban areas across different contexts in Europe: in Western, Central and Mediterranean Europe, and with growing, stable or declining populations. We conclude with recommendations with respect to balance in applying the compact city concept.

The role and evolution of boundary concepts in transdisciplinary landscape planning

In this paper we address two challenges that are faced by scientists who engage in transdisciplinary landscape planning. In building a common understanding and application of the knowledge they bring in, they face the need to integrate knowledge from a range of scientific disciplines to create comprehensive solutions, while aligning the diverging values and perspectives on the future of involved actors. Boundary management has been proposed as a strategy to support the decision-making of actors by reconfiguring the boundaries between different forms of academic and non-academic expertise and between facts and opinions, interests and values. In this paper we investigate how landscape concepts can play a role as a boundary concept in transdisciplinary landscape planning. By analysing three Dutch case studies, we conclude that collective views and coordinated actions within the local planning groups grew during the planning process. We argue that the characteristics of the landscape concepts contributed to this emerging collaboration by creating a discursive space for actors with different values and knowledge bases. We find that this role evolved during the planning process, from conceptually binding, via broadening the planning focus and the coalition, towards facilitating the implementation of collective action to adapt the landscape. Thus, whereas in the early phases of the planning process the concept linked landscape value to landscape functioning, later on it connected landscape functioning to landscape structure.

Contested Spaces? The Use of Place Concepts to Communicate Visions for Peri-Urban Areas

In Dutch planning, there has always been an important role for spatial concepts. Their role has arguably changed with the recent decentralization of planning to the regional and local level. At the national level, guiding concepts of a more procedural nature have replaced the more substantive and place-based spatial concepts, leaving more room for regional and local interpretation. At the regional and local level, spatial concepts are still in use, but this seems to be in a more communicative, negotiating and developing role than before. In this paper, we analyse how place concepts are used to exercise power, mobilize recourses and frame meaning over the use of the peri-urban areas, in the changing Dutch planning context. This paper focuses on two competing place concepts for overlapping green urban fringe areas in The Hague Region, which have been promoted by different actor constellations and which represent different visions about the meaning of these peri-urban areas. The case study allows conclusions about the changing role of spatial concepts in Dutch spatial planning.

Landscape Governance as Policy integration ‘from below’: a case of displaced and contained political conflict in the Netherlands

Agrienvironmental schemes (AES) have been a predominant manifestation of environmental policy Integration in the EU. However, rather than strictly following formal AES policy, farmers across Europe have taken various other initiatives to integrate environmental and agricultural practices. Mostly, these integrative initiatives were based on dynamic actor networks at various levels, responding to local problems and challenges. Compared with situations where, from the top down, one (mostly weaker) policy domain is integrated into another, the kind of integration taking place in these examples may be called more ‘fundamental’. Here, integration is already embedded in the practical outcomes envisioned in specific places. The parts of the outcome require each other. However, this fundamental form of integration may render problems at other levels and sectors of governance. In this paper we present a case study of an initiative called Farming for Nature. The initiative aimed to integrate farming and nature more thoroughly than EU and national policies and incorporated some important other characteristics of the area, such as its water dynamics and relationships with the urban environment. However, it also involved some key differences from mainstream policy; and although it resonated with EU support for participative governance, these differences rendered a lengthy process towards implementation lasting more than half a decade. We use the concept of ‘landscape governance’—operationalized as the interplay of discourses, institutional practices, and natural–spatial conditions—to understand the politics of scale involved when mainstream government policies and local integrative initiatives meet. Particular attention is paid to how the local ideas toned down some of their integrative ingredients in order to comply with mainstream sectoral policy discourse. We find that the type of landscape governance implemented shaped the initiatives into a form that contributed to their implementation, but simultaneously displaced and contained political conflict in a way that prevented public debate.

Scale and self-governance in agri-environment schemes: experiences with two alternative approaches in the Netherlands

Agri-environment schemes in the Netherlands have been criticized for their lack of effectiveness. Explanations were sought in the limited size of the individual farm and in the shallowness of the measures. We distinguish three scale problems: in the spatial dimension (from farm element to landscape), in the management dimension (from add-on measure to farming system) and in the governance dimension (from little to much space for self-governance by farmers). These scale concepts are used to translate insights from ecology and agro-economy to governance approaches. We analyse case studies of two new approaches: an area approach with group contracts and spatial coordination of agri-environmental measures, and a farming system with substantial adaptations of the farming concept. Both approaches have elements of increased self-governance and could offer inspiration for schemes elsewhere. We propose that appropriate space for self-governance is necessary when choosing another scale approach for making agri-environment schemes more effective.

Promoting nature conservation by Dutch farmers : a governance perspective

ABSTRACT Reconciling productive agricultural practices with nature conservation is not only an ecological challenge, but also a demanding matter of governance. This paper analyses the potential as well as the limitations of various governance arrangements, and explores ways to enhance the governance of nature conservation in agricultural landscapes. We assume four conditions to contribute to the performance of these arrangements: farmers should be motivated, demanded, enabled, and legitimized to participate in arrangements that promote nature conservation by farmers. We analyse 10 distinct Dutch governance arrangements in the period 2000–2016, including agri-environment schemes but also privately initiated arrangements. The arrangements target a large but unknown share of farmers and farmlands, but nature conservation ambition levels are generally low to moderate. The expected low-to-moderate performance is associated with a low-to-moderate motivation, demand, and ability. Underlying are stronger forces driving towards intensification and problems farmers face in recuperating the cost of nature conservation. New greening requirements in the EU Common Agricultural Policy and in agri-food supply chains are first, cautious steps addressing these fundamental drivers of ecological degradation. More ambitious greening requirements may contribute to a higher motivation and ability of larger groups of farmers to implement nature conservation measures.

The participating government: Shifting boundaries in collaborative spatial planning of urban regions:

This article identifies two alternative collaborative spatial planning discourses: a leading government with societal participation and self-governance by societal actors with government participation. It shows how the boundary between the roles of governments and societal actors in collaboration discourses is shifting, but also how both collaborative planning discourses exist alongside each other in two Dutch urban regions: Eindhoven Region and Parkstad Limburg. In both regions, these alternative discourses on role division in collaborative planning are similar, even though Eindhoven is a growing region in which the local and regional governments collaborate intensively with companies, and Parkstad Limburg is a shrinking region that more actively involves citizens. The article concludes with reflections on the need to manage boundaries in collaborative planning.

Change of Thought : Findings on Planning for Shrinkage from a Regional Design Competition

Abstract Shrinkage or ‘no growth’ is expected to condition the long-term perspective of many Western cities and regions. Planning for shrinkage differs substantively from planning for growth and therefore calls for a change of thought in spatial planning. In our paper, we analyse how planning professionals responded to a ‘planning for shrinkage’ challenge in a regional design competition. We found that they fully adapted to the shrinking perspective, took a strategic approach, and promoted a leading role for local inhabitants. Collaboration with local inhabitants and entrepreneurs, creating new alliances, and timing emerge as key themes for planning professionals in planning for shrinkage.

Boeren in Beweging : Hoe boeren afwegingen maken over natuurinclusieve landbouw en hoe anderen hen kunnen helpen

In de ‘Rijksnatuurvisie 2014 Natuurlijk verder’ is een nieuwe term ontstaan: natuurinclusieve landbouw. Het Rijk zwengelde hiermee een discussie aan over de mate waarin en de manier waarop natuur een plek zou moeten hebben in alle facetten van het boerenbedrijf. Het zou een transitie moeten worden: de hele Nederlandse landbouw zou zich richting natuurinclusiviteit moeten bewegen. Deze term is vervolgens opgepakt door onderzoekers, burgers, natuurorganisaties en belangengroepen. Allerlei projecten werden de afgelopen jaren opgezet of onder de noemer ‘natuurinclusief’ gebracht. In bijeenkomsten werd het gesprek aangegaan met ketenpartijen en landbouworganisaties. Een transitie richting een natuurinclusieve landbouw gaat echter alleen plaatsvinden als boeren zelf in beweging komen. Als overheid, burgers, bedrijven en organisaties boeren willen helpen om die beweging te maken, is het belangrijk om inzicht te krijgen in wat hen beweegt. Wat speelt mee in de keuzes die zij maken om wel of niet de natuurinclusieve kant op te gaan en welke rol heeft hun omgeving daarin? Deze brochure is het resultaat van een onderzoek naar die vragen. Het was een verkennend, kwalitatief onderzoek, beperkt tot de melkveehouderij en de akkerbouw en uitgevoerd in 2016/2017. We spraken met vijf melkveehouders in Eemland en vijf akkerbouwers in Flevoland; eerst individueel en vervolgens als groep per gebied. Want: hoe voeren boeren met elkaar het gesprek over natuurinclusieve landbouw? Ook spraken we voor elke sector nog met drie erfbetreders, om te verkennen hoe zij denken over de transitie naar natuurinclusieve landbouw. Het onderzoek was niet opgezet voor een representatief beeld, maar om inzicht te krijgen in wat meespeelt bij overwegingen van boeren om te kiezen voor natuurinclusieve landbouw. In het volgende hoofdstuk introduceren we het raamwerk dat we gebruikt hebben om zicht te krijgen op de totstandkoming van de keuzes van boeren op het gebied van natuurinclusieve landbouw. We hebben dit gebruikt om de interviews en focusgroepen voor te bereiden en te analyseren. Vervolgens vatten we samen wat natuurinclusieve landbouw betekent voor de melkveehouderij in Eemland en voor de akkerbouw in Flevoland. Dit moet niet gelezen worden als objectieve waarheid, maar als de werkelijkheid zoals boeren die zien en zoals zij die in hun keuzes meewegen. Ook is het belangrijk om te beseffen dat de inhoud van elk hoofdstuk is samengesteld op basis van de uitspraken van vijf verschillende boeren, die niet per se door alle vijf zijn gezegd1. In hoofdstuk 3 besteden we extra aandacht aan de rol van de erfbetreders. In hoofdstuk 4 vertalen we de bevindingen uit Eemland en Flevoland naar aanknopingspunten om als politiek en maatschappij de keuze voor natuurinclusieve landbouw voor boeren gemakkelijker te maken. Ten slotte doen we gerichte aanbevelingen voor diverse partijen. Deze brochure is dan ook bedoeld voor iedereen die bij zou kunnen dragen aan een transitie richting natuurinclusieve landbouw: overheden, ketenpartijen, natuurorganisaties, agrarische collectieven, erfbetreders, burgers etc. Voor boeren staat er waarschijnlijk weinig nieuws in deze brochure, maar hopelijk wel veel herkenning! Als onderzoekers hopen we dat meer mensen zich naar aanleiding van deze brochure willen verdiepen in en verbinden aan boeren die streven naar natuurinclusiviteit, en daarmee medeverantwoordelijkheid gaan nemen voor ons landschap, ons voedsel en onze natuur.

Boeren voor Natuur: de ultieme natuurinclusieve landbouw? : Lessen van vier pilotbedrijven en relevantie voor beleid

Dit rapport doet verslag van de uitkomsten van tien jaar uitvoering van Boeren voor Natuur op vier boerenbedrijven in Zuid-Holland en Overijssel. Daarnaast gaat het rapport in op de vraag wat nodig is voor een bredere toepassing.