Julie A. Morrissey

agr Expression Precedes Escape of Internalized Staphylococcus aureus from the Host Endosome

ABSTRACT Staphylococcus aureus is a versatile pathogen capable of causing life-threatening infections. Many of its cell wall and exoproduct virulence determinants are controlled via the accessory gene regulator (agr). Although considered primarily as an extracellular pathogen, it is now recognized that S. aureus can be internalized by epithelial and endothelial cells. Traditional experimental approaches to investigate bacterial internalization are extremely time-consuming and notoriously irreproducible. We present here a new reporter gene method to assess intracellular growth of S. aureus in MAC-T cells that utilizes a gfp-luxABCDE reporter operon under the control of the Bacillus megateriumxylA promoter, which in S. aureus is expressed in a growth-dependent manner. This facilitates assessment of the growth of internalized bacteria in a nondestructive assay. The dual gfp-lux reporter cassette was also evaluated as a reporter of agr expression and used to monitor the temporal induction of agr during the MAC-T internalization process. The data obtained suggest thatagr induction occurs prior to endosomal lysis and thatagr-regulated exoproteins appear to be required prior to the release and replication of S. aureus within the infected MAC-T cells.

The cop operon is required for copper homeostasis and contributes to virulence in Streptococcus pneumoniae

High levels of copper are toxic and therefore bacteria must limit free intracellular levels to prevent cellular damage. In this study, we show that a number of pneumococcal genes are differentially regulated by copper, including an operon encoding a CopY regulator, a protein of unknown function (CupA) and a P1‐type ATPase, CopA, which is conserved in all sequenced Streptococcus pneumoniae strains. Transcriptional analysis demonstrated that the cop operon is induced by copper in vitro, repressed by the addition of zinc and is autoregulated by the copper‐responsive CopY repressor protein. We also demonstrate that the CopA ATPase is a major pneumococcal copper resistance mechanism and provide the first evidence that the CupA protein plays a role in copper resistance. Our results also show that copper homeostasis is important for pneumococcal virulence as the expression of the cop operon is induced in the lungs and nasopharynx of intranasally infected mice, and a copA‐ mutant strain, which had decreased growth in high levels of copper in vitro, showed reduced virulence in a mouse model of pneumococcal pneumonia. Furthermore, using the copA‐ mutant we observed for the first time in any bacteria that copper homeostasis also appears to be required for survival in the nasopharynx.

Iron-Regulated Biofilm Formation in Staphylococcus aureus Newman Requires ica and the Secreted Protein Emp

ABSTRACT Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation is induced in iron-restricted growth conditions in vitro. In this study, we showed that Emp and Eap play important roles in low-iron-induced biofilm formation of S. aureus Newman. Eap and Emp are secreted proteins which are non-covalently attached to the S. aureus cell surface and have previously been implicated in a number of aspects of S. aureus pathogenesis. We showed here that the transcription of these important virulence factors is induced by growth in low-iron medium, reflective of the in vivo environment. Our results show that iron regulation of Eap and Emp is Fur independent. However, Fur is required for full induction of eap and emp expression in low-iron conditions. In this study, we demonstrated that in addition to Fur, low-iron-induced biofilm formation requires Sae, Agr, and SarA. In iron-restricted growth conditions, Sae and Agr are essential for Emp and Eap expression and hence for biofilm formation, whereas SarA appears to have a less-significant role. We also showed that expression of the ica operon is required for biofilm formation in iron-restricted growth conditions. We demonstrated that in fact, ica is required for the expression of the important multifunctional virulence determinants eap and emp.

The cop operon is required for copper homeostasis and contributes to virulence in Streptococcus pneumoniae.

High levels of copper are toxic and therefore bacteria must limit free intracellular levels to prevent cellular damage. In this study, we show that a number of pneumococcal genes are differentially regulated by copper, including an operon encoding a CopY regulator, a protein of unknown function (CupA) and a P1‐type ATPase, CopA, which is conserved in all sequenced Streptococcus pneumoniae strains. Transcriptional analysis demonstrated that the cop operon is induced by copper in vitro, repressed by the addition of zinc and is autoregulated by the copper‐responsive CopY repressor protein. We also demonstrate that the CopA ATPase is a major pneumococcal copper resistance mechanism and provide the first evidence that the CupA protein plays a role in copper resistance. Our results also show that copper homeostasis is important for pneumococcal virulence as the expression of the cop operon is induced in the lungs and nasopharynx of intranasally infected mice, and a copA‐ mutant strain, which had decreased growth in high levels of copper in vitro, showed reduced virulence in a mouse model of pneumococcal pneumonia. Furthermore, using the copA‐ mutant we observed for the first time in any bacteria that copper homeostasis also appears to be required for survival in the nasopharynx.

Iron-Responsive Regulation of Biofilm Formation in Staphylococcus aureus Involves Fur-Dependent and Fur-Independent Mechanisms

We have shown that Staphylococcus aureus biofilm production is induced in iron-restricted conditions and is repressed by iron via a Fur-independent mechanism, while Fur has both positive and negative regulatory roles in low iron. Furthermore, there is no significant increase in polymeric N-acetylglucosamine polysaccharide expression to account for induction of biofilms in low iron.

Copper Stress Induces a Global Stress Response in Staphylococcus aureus and Represses sae and agr Expression and Biofilm Formation

ABSTRACT Copper is an important cofactor for many enzymes; however, high levels of copper are toxic. Therefore, bacteria must ensure there is sufficient copper for use as a cofactor but, more importantly, must limit free intracellular levels to prevent toxicity. In this study, we have used DNA microarray to identify Staphylococcus aureus copper-responsive genes. Transcriptional profiling of S. aureus SH1000 grown in excess copper identified a number of genes which fall into four groups, suggesting that S. aureus has four main mechanisms for adapting to high levels of environmental copper, as follows: (i) induction of direct copper homeostasis mechanisms; (ii) increased oxidative stress resistance; (iii) expression of the misfolded protein response; and (iv) repression of a number of transporters and global regulators such as Agr and Sae. Our experimental data confirm that resistance to oxidative stress and particularly to H2O2 scavenging is an important S. aureus copper resistance mechanism. Our previous studies have demonstrated that Eap and Emp proteins, which are positively regulated by Agr and Sae, are required for biofilm formation under low-iron growth conditions. Our transcriptional analysis has confirmed that sae, agr, and eap are repressed under high-copper conditions and that biofilm formation is indeed repressed under high-copper conditions. Therefore, our results may provide an explanation for how copper films can prevent biofilm formation on catheters.

Molecular Cloning and Analysis of a Putative Siderophore ABC Transporter from Staphylococcus aureus

ABSTRACT From a mass-excised Staphylococcus aureus λZapII expression library, we cloned an operon encoding a novel ABC transporter with significant homology to bacterial siderophore transporter systems. The operon encodes four genes designatedsstA, -B, -C, and -Dencoding two putative cytoplasmic membrane proteins (sstAand sstB), an ATPase (sstC), and a membrane-bound 38-kDa lipoprotein (sstD). Thesst operon is preceded by two putative Fur boxes, which indicated that expression of the sst operon was likely to be iron dependent. SstD was overexpressed inEscherichia coli, purified by Triton X-114 phase partitioning, and used to generate monospecific antisera in rats. Immunoblotting studies located SstD in the membrane fraction ofS. aureus and showed that expression of the lipoprotein was reduced under iron-rich growth conditions. Triton X-114 partitioning studies on isolated membranes provided additional biochemical evidence that SstD in S. aureus is a lipoprotein. Immunoreactive polypeptides of approximately 38 kDa were detected in a wide range of staphylococcal species, but no antigenic homolog was detected inBacillus subtilis. Expression of SstD in vivo was confirmed by immunoblotting studies with S. aureus recovered from a rat intraperitoneal chamber implant model. To further define the contribution of SstD in promoting growth of S. aureus in vitro and in vivo, we used antisense RNA technology to modulate expression of SstD. Expression of antisense sstD RNA inS. aureus resulted in a decrease in SstD expression under both iron-rich and iron-restricted growth conditions. However, this reduction in SstD levels did not affect the growth of S. aureus in vitro in an iron-limited growth medium or when grown in an intraperitoneal rat chamber implant model in vivo.

Candida albicans has a cell-associated ferric-reductase activity which is regulated in response to levels of iron and copper

For survival, pathogenic organisms such as Candida albicans must possess an efficient mechanism for acquiring iron in the iron-restricted environment of the human body. C. albicans can use iron from a variety of sources found within the host. However, it is not clear how biologically active ferrous iron is obtained from these sources. One strategy adopted by some organisms is to reduce iron extracellularly and then specifically transport the ferrous iron into the cell. We have shown that clinical isolates of C. albicans do have a cell-associated ferric-reductase activity. The determination of ferric-reductase activity of cells growing exponentially in either low- or high-iron media over a period of time indicated that C. albicans reductase activity is induced when in low-iron conditions. Moreover, we have demonstrated that C. albicans reductase activity is also regulated in response to the growth phase of the culture, with induction occurring upon exit from stationary phase and maximal levels being reached in early exponential stage irrespective of the iron content of the medium. These results suggest that C. albicans reductase activity is regulated in a very similar manner to the Saccharomyces cerevisiae ferric-reductase. Iron reduction and uptake in S. cerevisiae are closely connected to copper reduction, and possibly copper uptake. In this report we show that iron and copper reduction also appear to be linked in C. albicans. The ferric-reductase activity is negatively regulated by copper. Moreover, quantitative cupric-reductase assays indicated that C. albicans is capable of reducing copper and that this cupric-reductase activity is negatively regulated by both iron and copper. This is the first report that C. albicans has an iron- and copper-mediated ferri-reductase activity.

Conservation, Surface Exposure, and In Vivo Expression of the Frp Family of Iron-Regulated Cell Wall Proteins in Staphylococcus aureus

ABSTRACT Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis identified two conserved, immunogenic Staphylococcus aureus cell wall proteins, of 40 and 87 kDa, expressed under iron-restricted growth conditions in vitro and in vivo. N-terminal sequencing and subsequent genome analysis showed that these proteins are encoded by adjacent monocistronic open reading frames designated frpA and frpB, respectively. Studies with an S. aureus fur mutant confirmed that expression of FrpA and FrpB is regulated by Fur but that there also appears to be differential expression of these proteins in different iron-restricted media in vitro. FrpA and FrpB share some amino acid sequence homology with each other and with a putative S. aureus membrane protein, FrpC. frpC is the first gene of a Fur-regulated operon encoding four proteins of unknown function (FrpC, -D, -G, and -H) and the binding protein (FrpE) and permease (FrpF) of a putative iron transporter. Antisense mutagenesis and bioassays showed that FrpA and FrpB are not required for growth of S. aureus under iron-restricted conditions in vitro and do not appear to be involved in the transport of iron from siderophores or in binding of hemin. Further phenotypic analysis suggested that FrpA may be involved in adhesion of S. aureus to plastic in vitro. Binding of S. aureus to microtiter wells was found to be iron regulated, and iron-restricted S. aureus containing antisense frpA or frpAB but not frpB constructs showed reduced binding compared to vector construct controls.

Two Distinct Coagulase-Dependent Barriers Protect Staphylococcus aureus from Neutrophils in a Three Dimensional in vitro Infection Model

Staphylococcus aureus is a pyogenic abscess-forming facultative pathogenic microorganism expressing a large set of virulence-associated factors. Among these, secreted proteins with binding capacity to plasma proteins (e.g. fibrinogen binding proteins Eap and Emp) and prothrombin activators such as Coagulase (Coa) and vWbp are involved in abscess formation. By using a three-dimensional collagen gel (3D-CoG) supplemented with fibrinogen (Fib) we studied the growth behavior of S. aureus strain Newman and a set of mutants as well as their interaction with mouse neutrophils by real-time confocal microscopy. In 3D-CoG/Fib, S. aureus forms microcolonies which are surrounded by an inner pseudocapsule and an extended outer dense microcolony-associated meshwork (MAM) containing fibrin. Coa is involved in formation of the pseudocapsule whereas MAM formation depends on vWbp. Moreover, agr-dependent dispersal of late stage microcolonies could be observed. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the pseudocapsule and the MAM act as mechanical barriers against neutrophils attracted to the microcolony. The thrombin inhibitor argatroban is able to prevent formation of both pseudocapsule and MAM and supports access of neutrophils to staphylococci. Taken together, this model can simulate specific stages of S. aureus abscess formation by temporal dissection of bacterial growth and recruitment of immune cells. It can complement established animal infection models in the development of new treatment options.