Julie S. Darnell

Free clinics in the United States: a nationwide survey.

BACKGROUND Since an increasing proportion of the US population is without health insurance, a network of free clinics has gradually developed to provide care for the uninsured. Despite widespread concern about the uninsured and the viability of the safety net, free clinics have been overlooked and poorly studied, leaving old assumptions and beliefs largely unchallenged. As a result, policy discussions have been forestalled and potentially fruitful collaborations between free clinics and other safety net providers have been hindered. The objective of this study is to describe the attributes of free clinics and measure their contribution to the safety net. METHODS National mail survey of all known free clinics in the United States. The main outcome measures were organizational structures, operations, revenue sources, patient profiles, services, and staffing. RESULTS The study represents the first census of free clinics in 40 years and garnered a 75.9% response rate. Overall, 1007 free clinics operated in 49 states and the District of Columbia. Annually, these clinics provided care for 1.8 million individuals, accounting for 3.5 million medical and dental visits. The mean operating budget was

Follow-Up and Timeliness After an Abnormal Cancer Screening Among Underserved, Urban Women in a Patient Navigation Program

287,810. Overall, 58.7% received no government revenue. Clinics were open a mean of 18 hours per week and generally provided chronic disease management (73.2%), physical examinations (81.4%), urgent/acute care (62.3%), and medications (86.5%). CONCLUSIONS Free clinics operate largely outside of the safety net system. However, they have become an established and meaningful contributor to it. Policymakers should consider integrating the free clinic network with other safety net providers or providing direct financial support.

Structural and reliability analysis of a patient satisfaction with cancer‐related care measure

Background: We evaluated the efficacy of a Chicago-based cancer patient navigation program developed to increase the proportion of patients reaching diagnostic resolution and reduce the time from abnormal screening test to definitive diagnostic resolution. Methods: Women with an abnormal breast (n = 352) or cervical (n = 545) cancer screening test were recruited for the quasi-experimental study. Navigation subjects originated from five federally qualified health center sites and one safety net hospital. Records-based concurrent control subjects were selected from 20 sites. Control sites had similar characteristics to the navigated sites in terms of patient volume, racial/ethnic composition, and payor mix. Mixed-effects logistic regression and Cox proportional hazard regression analyses were conducted to compare navigation and control patients reaching diagnostic resolution by 60 days and time to resolution, adjusting for demographic covariates and site. Results: Compared with controls, the breast navigation group had shorter time to diagnostic resolution (aHR = 1.65, CI = 1.20–2.28) and the cervical navigation group had shorter time to diagnostic resolution for those who resolved after 30 days (aHR = 2.31, CI = 1.75–3.06), with no difference before 30 days (aHR = 1.42, CI = 0.83–2.43). Variables significantly associated with longer time to resolution for breast cancer screening abnormalities were being older, never partnered, abnormal mammogram and BI-RADS 3, and being younger and Black for cervical abnormalities. Conclusions: Patient navigation reduces time from abnormal cancer finding to definitive diagnosis in underserved women. Impact: Results support efforts to use patient navigation as a strategy to reduce cancer disparities among socioeconomically disadvantaged women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev; 21(10); 1691–700. ©2012 AACR.

Patient Barriers to Follow-Up Care for Breast and Cervical Cancer Abnormalities

Patient satisfaction is an important outcome measure of quality of cancer care and 1 of the 4 core study outcomes of the National Cancer Institute (NCI)‐sponsored Patient Navigation Research Program to reduce race/ethnicity‐based disparities in cancer care. There is no existing patient satisfaction measure that spans the spectrum of cancer‐related care. The objective of this study was to develop a Patient Satisfaction With Cancer Care measure that is relevant to patients receiving diagnostic/therapeutic cancer‐related care.

A Qualitative Evaluation of a Faith-Based Breast and Cervical Cancer Screening Intervention for African American Women

BACKGROUND Women with breast or cervical cancer abnormalities can experience barriers to timely follow-up care, resulting in delays in cancer diagnosis. Patient navigation programs that identify and remove barriers to ensure timely receipt of care are proliferating nationally. The study used a systematic framework to describe barriers, including differences between African American and Latina women; to determine recurrence of barriers; and to examine factors associated with barriers to follow-up care. METHODS Data originated from 250 women in the intervention arm of the Chicago Patient Navigation Research Program (PNRP). The women had abnormal cancer screening findings and navigator encounters. Women were recruited from a community health center and a publicly owned medical center. After describing proportions of African American and Latina women experiencing particular barriers, logistic regression was used to explore associations between patient characteristics, such as race/ethnicity, and type of barriers. RESULTS The most frequent barriers occurred at the intrapersonal level (e.g., insurance issues and fear), while institutional-level barriers such as system problems with scheduling care were the most commonly recurring over time (29%). The majority of barriers (58%) were reported in the first navigator encounter. Latinas (81%) reported barriers more often than African American women (19%). Differences in race/ethnicity and employment status were associated with types of barriers. Compared to African American women, Latinas were more likely to report an intrapersonal level barrier. Unemployed women were more likely to report an institutional level barrier. CONCLUSION In a sample of highly vulnerable women, there is no single characteristic (e.g., uninsured) that predicts what kinds of barriers a woman is likely to have. Nevertheless, navigators appear able to easily resolve intrapersonal-level barriers, but ongoing navigation is needed to address system-level barriers. Patient navigation programs can adopt the PNRP barriers framework to assist their efforts in assuring timely follow-up care.

Can Patient Navigation Improve Receipt of Recommended Breast Cancer Care? Evidence From the National Patient Navigation Research Program

This article presents a formative evaluation of a CDC Racial and Ethnic Approaches to Community Health (REACH) 2010 faith-based breast and cervical cancer early detection and prevention intervention for African American women living in urban communities. Focus groups were conducted with a sample of women (N = 94) recruited from each church participating in the intervention. One focus group was conducted in each of the nine participating churches following completion of the 6-month REACH 2010 intervention. Transcribed data were coded to identify relevant themes. Key findings included (a) the acceptability of receiving cancer education within the context of a faith community, (b) the importance of pastoral input, (c) the effectiveness of personal testimonies and lay health advocates, (d) the saliency of biblical scripture in reinforcing health messages, (e) the effectiveness of multimodal learning aids, and (f) the relationship between cervical cancer and social stigma. Study findings have implications for enhancing faith-based breast and cervical cancer prevention efforts in African American communities.

Knowledge About Breast Cancer and Participation in a Faith-Based Breast Cancer Program and Other Predictors of Mammography Screening Among African American Women and Latinas

PURPOSE Poor and underserved women face barriers in receiving timely and appropriate breast cancer care. Patient navigators help individuals overcome these barriers, but little is known about whether patient navigation improves quality of care. The purpose of this study is to examine whether navigated women with breast cancer are more likely to receive recommended standard breast cancer care. PATIENTS AND METHODS Women with breast cancer who participated in the national Patient Navigation Research Program were examined to determine whether the care they received included the following: initiation of antiestrogen therapy in patients with hormone receptor-positive breast cancer; initiation of postlumpectomy radiation therapy; and initiation of chemotherapy in women younger than age 70 years with triple-negative tumors more than 1 cm. This is a secondary analysis of a multicenter quasi-experimental study funded by the National Cancer Institute to evaluate patient navigation. Multiple logistic regression was performed to compare differences in receipt of care between navigated and non-navigated participants. RESULTS Among participants eligible for antiestrogen therapy, navigated participants (n = 380) had a statistically significant higher likelihood of receiving antiestrogen therapy compared with non-navigated controls (n = 381; odds ratio [OR], 1.73; P = .004) in a multivariable analysis. Among the participants eligible for radiation therapy after lumpectomy, navigated participants (n = 255) were no more likely to receive radiation (OR, 1.42; P = .22) than control participants (n = 297). CONCLUSION We demonstrate that navigated participants were more likely than non-navigated participants to receive antiestrogen therapy. Future studies are required to determine the full impact patient navigation may have on ensuring that vulnerable populations receive quality care.

U.S. civil rights policy and access to health care by minority Americans: implications for a changing health care system.

This article assessed the impact of knowledge of breast cancer and type and intensity of participation in a church-based breast cancer education program and other factors on mammography screening among African Americans and Latinas. Logistic regression was used to assess the impact of these factors on self-reported mammography utilization. Passive participation in church-sponsored activities, measured by breast cancer information that was heard, seen, or read, was found to be significantly associated with the likelihood of mammography use among African Americans. Moreover, African Americans who reported hearing, seeing, or reading about mammograms at their churches four or more times were 15 times more likely to report mammography use within the past year than were those who encountered information only once. Messages from pastors and church bulletin announcements were the most significant predictors. An increase in knowledge was not associated with higher mammography use. For Latinas, none of the hypothesized knowledge or participation variables was found to be significant. The results suggest that faith-based breast cancer programs can be effective by adopting tailored strategies to raise awareness about the importance of early detection.

What is the role of free clinics in the safety net

The history of health care discrimination as well as ongoing, extensive evidence of racial disparities argue for continued vigilance in the area of health care and civil rights. Under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, individuals have challenged de facto discriminatory policies adopted by health entities receiving federal financial assistance. Title VI health litigation is difficult because of complex issues of proof as well as confounding problems of poverty and lack of health insurance that affect both claims and remedies. An analysis of cases brought under the law suggests that discrimination claims within a particular market fare better than those challenging decisions to relocate or alter the market served. This has important implications for claims involving discrimination by managed care organizations. Because the same potential for discrimination exists in the new health system of managed care, although in altered form, data collection and evaluation are warranted.

Analysis of combined data from heterogeneous study designs: an applied example from the patient navigation research program

Background:Free clinics play an important role in the safety net but little is known about what factors drive their existence within a given community. The anecdotal literature suggests that they exist due to growing numbers of uninsured and a lack of affordable care. Objective:To determine whether unmet needs explain the existence of free clinics. Materials and Methods:The relationship between demographics, Medicaid policy, and ambulatory safety-net care on the geographical distribution of all known free clinics (n=1007) across all metropolitan statistical areas (n=361) in the United States is investigated cross sectionally. Drawing from numerous secondary data sources and an original dataset of all known free clinics, a negative binomial model is used to examine whether free clinic prevalence is higher in communities with larger proportions of uninsured patients, poor adults, and African Americans and is lower in communities with greater availability of federally qualified health centers (FQHCs), FQHC look-alikes, and health departments, and more generous Medicaid eligibility for working parents and Medicaid beneficiary/provider payment levels. Results and Discussion:None of the demographic variables has a positive, statistically significant relationship to the number of free clinics in a metropolitan statistical area. However, the number of FQHC grantees per 10,000 uninsured individuals [incidence rate ratios (IRR)=0.69, P<0.05], the number of FQHC look-alike sites per 10,000 uninsured individuals (IRR=0.46, P<0.05), Medicaid beneficiary payments (IRR=0.9998, P<0.05), and Medicaid eligibility levels (IRR=0.998, P<0.10) are negatively associated with the number of free clinics. Thus, free clinics seem to respond to particular gaps left by safety-net providers and Medicaid but do not seem to respond to direct need.