Justin Ready

The TASER as a Less Lethal Force Alternative: Findings on Use and Effectiveness in a Large Metropolitan Police Agency

Despite its adoption by more than 8,000 law enforcement agencies in the United States and abroad, there is little empirical research examining use of the TASER by police officers. This article investigates the use and effectiveness of the weapon by examining all TASER deployments by police officers in a large metropolitan department during a 3-year period (2002 to 2004; n = 243). Findings indicate that the TASER was used almost exclusively against violent suspects classified as “emotionally disturbed” by emergency service officers with supervisors present. Despite use on a population perceived as being higher risk for injury, findings indicate that the TASER was effective, as 85% of suspects were incapacitated and taken into custody without further incident. The article concludes with a discussion of implications for continued use of the TASER and the need for additional research before any definitive conclusions about use and effectiveness of the weapon can be drawn.

The Impact of the Taser on Suspect Resistance Identifying Predictors of Effectiveness

Despite the Taser’s increasing popularity among police agencies, questions have been raised concerning the weapon’s use and effectiveness as well as its potential to cause serious injury or death. This article examines all Taser deployments by the New York City Police Department from 2002 to 2005 (N = 375) and uses two multivariate approaches—logistic regression and chi-square automatic interaction detection—to identify predictors of Taser effectiveness, measured as continued suspect resistance and officer satisfaction. Findings indicate that several factors are associated with reduced effectiveness, including suspect body weight (more than 200 pounds), drug and alcohol use, physical violence, and close distance (3 feet or less) between the officer and the suspect. Although this study represents a preliminary effort at identifying predictors of Taser effectiveness, there are clear training and policy implications for police departments.

Shock value: A comparative analysis of news reports and official police records on TASER deployments

Purpose – This paper sets out to encompass a comparative analysis of news reports and official police records of TASER deployments from 2002 to 2005. Design/methodology/approach – The methodology involves a content analysis of all LexisNexis and New York Times articles involving police use of the TASER during the study period (n = 353). Regional (New York Times) and national (LexisNexis) news reports describing police use of the TASER are compared with police reports of all TASER deployments by the New York City Police Department (NYPD) during the same timeframe (n = 375). Findings – Descriptive statistics and logistic regression are used to compare the data sources with respect to: the circumstances in which the weapon is deployed; the characteristics of the suspects involved in the TASER incidents; and the significant predictors of continued suspect resistance and repeated use of the TASER by an officer. Research limitations/implications – The paper examines official police records on TASER deployments from one police agency. This limits the ability to generalize the research findings to other police agencies that have adopted different practices and policies regulating the deployment of CEDs. Additionally, the content analysis includes only articles in the mainstream print media. Practical implications – The paper concludes with a discussion about some myths associated with news reports on police use of the TASER, and their potential impact on both public perception and police practices. Originality/value – To date, research has not systematically compared media representations of the TASER with official reports on police deployments of the weapon. That is the focus of this paper.

Risk‐Focused Policing at Places: An Experimental Evaluation

Drawing upon literature from developmental criminology and place‐based policing, the Redlands, California Police Department developed the Risk‐Focused Policing at Places (RFPP) approach to preventing and reducing juvenile delinquency. The RFPP program is a community‐oriented policing and problem‐solving strategy that targets risk and protective factors related to delinquency and problem behaviors of youths living in census block group areas. We used a matched block randomized experimental design to evaluate the effects of the program on youths living in 26 census block groups in Redlands. We find that the RFPP program did not influence self‐reported delinquency, or perceptions of risk and protective factors and police legitimacy. We argue that the primary explanation for the absence of a program effect centers on the unit of analysis used for the program. The census block group is too large a geographic unit of analysis to achieve the kind of targeted and focused interventions that lead to positive crime‐prevention outcomes.

An Incident-Level Profile of TASER Device Deployments in Arrest-Related Deaths

While a considerable body of research has investigated the physiological risks associated with the TASER device, much less research attention has been devoted to examining the nearly 400 police–citizen encounters in which a suspect has died after the device was used. As a result, there are numerous unanswered questions regarding officer, suspect, and incident-level characteristics of these arrest-related deaths (ARDs), as well as the extent to which patterns in these characteristics may have changed over time. The current study seeks to inform the discourse surrounding these death cases through a descriptive analysis of the near-universe of ARDs involving a TASER device deployment from 2001-2008 (n = 392). Using a unique data triangulation methodology that captures both media (n = 392) and medical examiner reports (n = 213), the authors characterize the geographic distribution of ARDs and find parallels between that distribution, state population, the number of officers per state, crime levels per state, and TASER device sales patterns. Also, an incident-level analysis shows that these ARDs were dynamic encounters between suspects who were frequently intoxicated and who actively and aggressively resisted police, and officers who were drawing deeply into their arsenal of force options in an attempt to control and arrest them. Cause of death was most commonly identified as drugs, heart problems, or Excited Delirium Syndrome. Last, longitudinal analysis showed consistency in most incident, suspect and officer characteristics, though key aspects of suspect resistance, including level of aggression and persistence after TASER device exposure, changed notably over time. The article concludes with a discussion of implications for policy and practice with regard to these rare but fatal police–citizen encounters.

Diffusion of Ideas and Technology: The Role of Networks in Influencing the Endorsement and Use of On-Officer Video Cameras

On-officer videos, or body cameras, can provide objective accounts of interactions among police officers and the public. Police leadership tends to view this emerging technology as an avenue for resolving citizen complaints and prosecuting offenses where victims and witnesses are reluctant to testify. However, getting endorsement from patrol officers is difficult. These incongruent cognitive frames are a cultural barrier to the utilization of innovative technologies. Understanding the mechanisms that lead to the deconstruction of these barriers is essential for the integration of technology into organizations. Using affiliation data collected from a large police department in Southwestern United States over a 4-month period, we find that interactions with other officers provide a conduit for facilitating cognitive frames that increase camera legitimacy.

The Problem Is Not Just Sample Size The Consequences of Low Base Rates in Policing Experiments in Smaller Cities

Background: Hot spots policing is one of the most influential police innovations, with a strong body of experimental research showing it to be effective in reducing crime and disorder. However, most studies have been conducted in major cities, and we thus know little about whether it is effective in smaller cities, which account for a majority of police agencies. The lack of experimental studies in smaller cities is likely in part due to challenges designing statistically powerful tests in such contexts. Objectives: The current article explores the challenges of statistical power and “noise” resulting from low base rates of crime in smaller cities and provides suggestions for future evaluations to overcome these limitations. Research Design: Data from a randomized experimental evaluation of broken windows policing in hot spots are used to illustrate the challenges that low base rates present for evaluating hot spots policing programs in smaller cities. Results: Analyses show low base rates make it difficult to detect treatment effects. Very large effect sizes would be required to reach sufficient power, and random fluctuations around low base rates make detecting treatment effects difficult, irrespective of power, by masking differences between treatment and control groups. Conclusions: Low base rates present strong challenges to researchers attempting to evaluate hot spots policing in smaller cities. As such, base rates must be taken directly into account when designing experimental evaluations. The article offers suggestions for researchers attempting to expand the examination of hot spots policing and other microplace-based interventions to smaller jurisdictions.

The role of crime victims in american policing: findings from a national survey of police and victim organizations

The role of victims in enhancing community policing has received little scholarly attention. This paper adds to the current state of knowledge about the role of victims in policing and the relationship between victim organizations and police departments as part of community policing. Relying upon a national survey of police departments and victim organizations carried out by the Police Foundation and the National Center for Victims of Crime, we present a broad snapshot of community policing partnerships that draw from the experience and knowledge of victims and victim service providers. Our research indicates that while a majority of police executives believe there are benefits to involving victims in community policing, most also report that when it comes to problem solving and crime prevention it is more useful for officers to interact with community members without special attention to who has been a crime victim. Regardless of this view, a large proportion of police agencies report supporting abroad set of practices that focus on crime victims. Finally, our study reinforces the position that the broad approach and policies of a police agency toward victims play a central role in the development of partnerships between police and victim organizations.

Exploring patterns of TASER use by the police: an officer-level analysis

The empirical research on the TASER and other conducted energy devices (CEDs) has been expanding as police departments increasingly adopt them as a force alternative. To date, a number of studies have examined the circumstances in which they are used, their effectiveness in the field, and physiological effects. Much of the research in criminal justice has focused on incident-level health and effectiveness outcomes. Also, a growing number of researchers have begun to study organizational-level changes in policy and management that have emerged as a result of the introduction of this new technology. However, few studies have examined officer-level patterns and variations in TASER use. Although it is important to understand how situational contingencies and departmental policies shape police–citizen encounters, it may also benefit the policing field to understand whether non-users, users and high-frequency users of the TASER differ in meaningful ways. That is the focus of this study. This paper draws on a 2009 survey of 580 police officers who carry the TASER across 10 police agencies in northeast USA. Research findings and policy implications are discussed.

Mean Streets and Mental Health: Depression and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder at Crime Hot Spots

This study explores the relationship between mental health and place at microgeographic units of analysis. We examine self-reported symptomology for depression and PTSD for 2,724 survey respondents interviewed in three types of randomly selected street segments: violent crime hot spots, cool spots, and cold spots. We find that the mean symptomology score is 61% higher for depression in violent crime hot spots than cold spots, and 85% higher for PTSD. Overall, we estimate that 14.8% of residents of violent crime hot spots meet thresholds for moderate depression or a diagnosis of PTSD. This can be compared to only 6.5% of residents at the cold spots. Using PSM and weighted negative binomial regression approaches we show that observable selection factors are not responsible for the relationships identified. Examining geographic influences, we find an important area effect of violent crime for both mental health measures, and an additional impact of the specific street of residence for PTSD.