Michael D. White

Do drug courts work? Getting inside the drug court black box

This article argues that evaluation of drug courts will benefit not only from an organizing typology (Goldkamp, 1999a, 2000) that focuses research on the critical structural elements of the drug court model but also from an understanding of how drug courts are thought to deliver their impact. In developing a causal model of drug court impact, the analysis separates assessment of impact into two investigations: whether drug courts “work” and how they work. Data from the ongoing NIJ-supported evaluation of the Portland and Las Vegas drug courts are analyzed to answer the comparative question of whether there is an impact (and of what sort) and then to move consideration of the internal elements of the drug court (the black box of drug court treatment) through the development of successive theoretical models. The illustrative analyses guided by these models consider the relative contributions of instrumental drug court treatment functions and defendant risk attributes, which contribute importantly to drug court outcomes. The exploratory findings differ by site, but show some support for the importance of treatment, sanctions and appearances before the drug court judge—and their interaction—in lowering the prospects for subsequent rearrest and increasing likelihood of graduation.

The TASER as a Less Lethal Force Alternative: Findings on Use and Effectiveness in a Large Metropolitan Police Agency

Despite its adoption by more than 8,000 law enforcement agencies in the United States and abroad, there is little empirical research examining use of the TASER by police officers. This article investigates the use and effectiveness of the weapon by examining all TASER deployments by police officers in a large metropolitan department during a 3-year period (2002 to 2004; n = 243). Findings indicate that the TASER was used almost exclusively against violent suspects classified as “emotionally disturbed” by emergency service officers with supervisors present. Despite use on a population perceived as being higher risk for injury, findings indicate that the TASER was effective, as 85% of suspects were incapacitated and taken into custody without further incident. The article concludes with a discussion of implications for continued use of the TASER and the need for additional research before any definitive conclusions about use and effectiveness of the weapon can be drawn.

Identifying Good Cops Early Predicting Recruit Performance in the Academy

Police departments have traditionally assessed their performance through crime-related activity measures that often have little to do with good police work and offer little hope for prediction of exemplary performance. This article suggests some progress can be made in predicting superior performance by considering an earlier stage in a police officers career where performance is well-defined and measurable: the police academy. Using recruit performance data (n = 1,556) from a large metropolitan police department, the article uses linear and logistic regression, as well as Chi-square Automatic Indicator Detector (CHIAD), to identify predictors of superior performance in the academy. A number of interesting findings emerge with regard to factors that offer predictive value—reading level, age, gender, and race—and those that do not—college education, military experience, and residency. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications for recruitment, selection, and training, as well as for measuring and predicting performance on the street.

The school-police partnership: Identifying at-risk youth through a Truant Recovery Program

A substantial amount of research has established that truancy is a consistent at-risk indicator of future criminality. This article studies the experiences of 178 juveniles targeted by the Truant Recovery Program, a collaborative and nonpunitive school-law enforcement effort, and considers questions regarding its impact through examination of juvenile justice and school information in the years before and after the truancy sweep. In particular, the article suggests that intensive cooperative efforts between school and police may be effective in identifying troubled youth and raises questions about appropriate school and justice system responses for children who demonstrate at-risk behavior.

Exploring the Use of DNA Evidence in Homicide Investigations Implications for Detective Work and Case Clearance

Since the 1960s there has been a consistent gradual decline in national homicide clearance rates and the trend continued throughout the 1990s and into the 21st century, despite the development of DNA evidence. Although the media portrays DNA testing as an investigative “super weapon” for police, there is little empirical research examining its actual use by detectives or its impact on case clearance. This article examines New York Police Department (NYPD) case files for Manhattan homicides between 1996 and 2003 to investigate how often detectives used DNA evidence in the course of their investigations, as well as how its use influenced the likelihood of case clearance. Results suggest that DNA evidence was rarely used by NYPD detectives and that it was not related to case clearance. These findings suggest that NYPD detectives used DNA evidence as a “tool of last resort,” relying on it only when all other investigative means had been exhausted. The authors conclude that the explanation for these findings is complex and that the diffusion framework may be helpful in understanding detectives’ use of DNA evidence in New York and elsewhere.

Examining The Impact Of External Influences On Police Use Of Deadly Force Over Time

Prior deadly force research has sought to identify appropriate mechanisms that can effectively control police officers’ decisions to use deadly force. However, the relative impact of external discretion control policies on police shooting behavior remains largely unknown. Using data from Philadelphia for a period of more than two decades, this article employs interrupted time-series analysis (ARIMA) to examine the impact of legislation and judicial intervention on use of deadly force by Philadelphia police officers. The article also considers the impact of larger, community-level characteristics on levels of deadly force. Findings produced modest support for the potential effect of external discretion control policies and community-level factors on police shooting behavior but generally suggest that dynamic changes in the internal working environment can outweigh the influence of the external mechanisms.

The Impact of the Taser on Suspect Resistance Identifying Predictors of Effectiveness

Despite the Taser’s increasing popularity among police agencies, questions have been raised concerning the weapon’s use and effectiveness as well as its potential to cause serious injury or death. This article examines all Taser deployments by the New York City Police Department from 2002 to 2005 (N = 375) and uses two multivariate approaches—logistic regression and chi-square automatic interaction detection—to identify predictors of Taser effectiveness, measured as continued suspect resistance and officer satisfaction. Findings indicate that several factors are associated with reduced effectiveness, including suspect body weight (more than 200 pounds), drug and alcohol use, physical violence, and close distance (3 feet or less) between the officer and the suspect. Although this study represents a preliminary effort at identifying predictors of Taser effectiveness, there are clear training and policy implications for police departments.

Making good cops in the twenty-first century: Emerging issues for the effective recruitment, selection and training of police in the United States and abroad

Recruitment, selection and training have become critically important issues for police departments around the world in large part because of significant changes in the philosophy and nature of policing, higher expectations by their constituencies, and because of continuing efforts at professionalization. This paper highlights seven pressing issues, as at 2008, that will likely define recruitment, selection and training of police over the next several years. Two areas in recruitment and selection are discussed: proactive recruitment to promote diversity and college-education requirements. The paper then turns to five critical issues in police training: changing the pedagogy (andragogy is described), community and problem-oriented policing philosophies, multicultural/diversity training, technology, and counter-terrorism. The paper first examines the issues from an American perspective, but then each issue is considered through an international lens. This international focus offers a broader perspective that both highlights important differences between the USA and other countries and provides critical insights about lessons learned elsewhere.

Co-Occurring Mental Illness and Substance Abuse in the Criminal Justice System Some Implications for Local Jurisdictions

The increasing role of police, courts, and corrections in dealing with the mentally ill represents a significant challenge facing local justice systems. This article considers the impact of mentally ill and substance-abusing offenders in Santa Fe, New Mexico, by comparing a random sample of individuals detained on protective custody and mental health holds (n = 338) to a random sample of defendants arrested on criminal charges (n = 153). Results indicate that police encounter individuals with co-occurring disorders on a daily basis and that individuals detained on holds are much more likely than are those arrested to generate additional police contacts during a 1-year follow-up period. Individuals with co-occurring disorders also represent a serious financial burden on the local system, particularly in terms of confinement costs. The article concludes with a discussion of implications for criminal justice policy and practice.

The Police Role In Preventing Homicide: Considering The Impact Of Problem-Oriented Policing On The Prevalence Of Murder:

Criminal justice practitioners and scholars have traditionally held that homicide is relatively immune from police suppression efforts. Recently, the widespread adoption of community and problem-oriented policing and concomitant decreases in violent crime have raised questions about what the police can reasonably be expected to accomplish. This article examines a joint effort by the Bureau of Justice Assistance and the city of Richmond, California, to apply the lessons of problem-oriented policing to homicide work. Analyses of Richmond homicides from 1985 to 1998 suggest that the nature and pattern of murders changed notably following adoption of the new policing philosophy, and interrupted time-series analysis with homicide data from 75 other California cities suggests the changes in Richmond were unique. Results indicate that homicide prevention is a critical police responsibility and that by employing problem-oriented strategies and garnering citizen involvement, police may be able to effectively reduce the prevalence of such violence.