Justine B. Allen

Contemporary measures of approach and avoidance goal orientations: Similarities and differences

BACKGROUND In response to a resurgence of interest in and demonstrated utility of the approach-avoidance goal distinction, a number of researchers (Elliot & Church, 1997; Midgley et al., 1998; Skaalvik, 1997) have developed instruments to assess individual differences in the tendency to adopt approach-avoidance goals. However, to date there has been no attempt to examine the psychometric properties or conceptual and measurement overlap of these instruments. AIMS (i) To determine whether three questionnaires designed to measure approach-avoidance goal orientations are assessing the same or different constructs, and (ii) to examine the psychometric properties of each of the approach-avoidance measures (i.e., internal consistency, convergent, discriminant, factorial, and construct validity). SAMPLE Participants in this study were 475 undergraduate students (N = 228 males; N = 244 females; three missing information) enrolled at two large universities in the United Kingdom. METHOD Participants completed a questionnaire which included measures of approach-avoidance goal orientations, effort regulation, test anxiety, perceived ability, and intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation. RESULTS Results revealed a degree of convergence between the three instruments. Each of the instruments demonstrated good psychometric properties although construct validity results were inconsistent across the measures. CONCLUSION There is a need for future research to clarify the operational definition and subsequent measurement of the performance avoidance construct, and in particular, to examine the role that effort, impression management, and anxiety/fear of failure play in its conceptualisation.

Changes in net joint torques during accomodation to change in surface compliance in a drop jumping task

Abstract This study investigated how subjects adjust the timing of joint torques during accomodation to an unfamiliar compliant surface in order to maximise height achieved in a drop jumping task (dropping from a height onto a surface and jumping for maximum height). Estimates of the energy absorbed and work done by the subject during the period of contact were obtained using a mathematical model of the compliant surface. Power output of joints and net joint torques were also calculated. In the case of all subjects there was a strong relationship ( p p

Predicting elite Scottish athletes’ attitudes towards doping: examining the contribution of achievement goals and motivational climate

Abstract Understanding athletes’ attitudes to doping continues to be of interest for its potential to contribute to an international anti-doping system. However, little is known about the relationship between elite athletes’ attitudes to drug use and potential explanatory factors, including achievement goals and the motivational climate. In addition, despite specific World Anti-Doping Agency Code relating to team sport athletes, little is known about whether sport type (team or individual) is a risk or protective factor in relation to doping. Elite athletes from Scotland (N = 177) completed a survey examining attitudes to performance-enhancing drug (PED) use, achievement goal orientations and perceived motivational climate. Athletes were generally against doping for performance enhancement. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that task and ego goals and mastery motivational climate were predictors of attitudes to PED use (F (4, 171) = 15.81, P < .01). Compared with individual athletes, team athletes were significantly lower in attitude to PED use and ego orientation scores and significantly higher in perceptions of a mastery motivational climate (Wilks’ lambda = .76, F = 10.89 (5, 170), P < .01). The study provides insight into how individual and situational factors may act as protective and risk factors in doping in sport.

An investigation of the relationships between the teaching climate, students’ perceived life skills development and well-being within physical education

ABSTRACT Background: Both education policies and curriculum documents identify the personal development of students as a key objective of modern education. Physical education (PE) in particular has been cited as a subject that can promote students’ life skills development and psychological well-being. However, little research has investigated the processes by which PE may be related to students’ development of life skills and their psychological well-being. Purpose: Using Benson and Saito’s (2001. ‘The Scientific Foundations of Youth Development.’ In Trends in Youth Development: Visions, Realities and Challenges, edited by P. L. Benson and K. J. Pittman, 135–154. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic) framework for youth development theory and research, this study explored the relationships between the teaching climate, students’ perceived life skills development within PE, and their psychological well-being. Participants and setting: Participants were 294 British PE students (Mage = 13.70, range = 11–18 years) attending 6 secondary schools in Scotland and England. On average, these male (n = 204) and female (n = 90) students took part in PE classes for 2.35 hours per week. Data collection: The data were collected via a survey which assessed perceived teacher autonomy support, participants’ perceived life skills development within PE (teamwork, goal setting, time management, emotional skills, interpersonal communication, social skills, leadership, and problem-solving and decision-making), and their psychological well-being (self-esteem, positive affect, and satisfaction with life). Data analyses: The preliminary analysis used descriptive statistics to assess how participants scored on each of the study variables and correlations to assess the relationships between all variables. The main analysis sought to test Benson and Saito’s (2001) framework using a series of mediation models which were tested via non-parametric bootstrapping analysis. Findings: This study demonstrated that students perceived they were developing the following life skills through PE: teamwork, goal setting, time management, emotional skills, interpersonal communication, social skills, leadership, and problem-solving and decision-making. Overall, the results supported Benson and Saito’s (2001) framework for youth development theory and research. In all analyses, perceived teacher autonomy support was positively related to participants’ perceived life skills development within PE and their psychological well-being. Participants’ total life skills development was related to all three psychological well-being indicators – providing support for the ‘pile-up’ effect (Benson 2006. All Kids Are Our Kids: What Communities Must do to Raise Caring and Responsible Children and Adolescents. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass). Total life skills development also mediated the relationships between perceived teacher autonomy support and participants’ psychological well-being. Conclusion: The findings suggest that perceived teacher autonomy support, along with total life skills development, is related to participants’ psychological well-being. Interpretation of the results suggests that PE teachers should integrate autonomy supportive behaviours into their teaching (e.g. provide choice in activities and encourage students to ask questions) as they are associated with young people’s development of multiple life skills and their psychological well-being.

Precipitating or prohibiting factor: Coaches’ perceptions of their role and actions in anti-doping

Coaches are frequently cited as potentially precipitating or preventing athletes’ engagement in doping. However, little is known about coaches’ perspectives. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine coaches’ perceptions of their role and actions in athletes’ anti-doping behaviour. Twenty-three coaches (M = 17, F = 6) working with performance athletes in Scotland participated in semi-structured interviews where topics related to doping and anti-doping were discussed. Thematic analysis, guided by Schön’s role frame and reflective conversation concepts, was used to develop themes. Analysis led to the development of four internal role frame themes: clean sport value, approach to preparation and performance, responsibility to athletes and knowledge; and five boundary role frame themes: Scottish/British sporting culture, potential for benefit, prevalence of doping and testing, clarity of responsibilities and consequences, and beyond coaches’ control. The coaches’ role frame supported an anti-doping stance, but, it also presented a risk and was insufficient to ensure action. Analysis of coaches’ reflective conversations revealed the issues set by the coaches differed and influenced subsequent actions and evaluations.

Where science meets practice: Olympic coaches’ crafting of the tapering process

ABSTRACT Although there is research providing physiologically-based guidance for the content of the taper, this study was the first to examine how coaches actually implement the taper. The purpose of this study was to examine the taper planning and implementation processes of successful Olympic coaches leading up to major competitions and how they learned about tapering. Seven track and field coaches participated in semi-structured interviews exploring their tapering processes. To be considered for inclusion, coaches were required to have coached one or more athletes to an Olympic or Paralympic medal. Through a process of axial and open coding interview transcripts were analysed and lower and higher order themes developed describing the coaches’ tapering processes. Our findings indicate that the strategies employed to achieve the desired physiological adaptions of the taper were consistent with research (e.g., reduction in volume whilst maintaining intensity and frequency). However, our findings also suggest that tapering is far from a straight forward “textbook” process. The taper was not restricted to physiological outcomes with coaches considering athletes’ psychological as well as physical state. Coaches also involved the athlete in the process, adapted the taper to the athlete, continually monitored its progress, and adapted it further as required.

Examining the relationships among the coaching climate, life skills development and well-being in sport

Using Benson and Saito’s framework for positive youth development, we investigated the relationships between the coaching climate, young people’s perceived life skills development within sport, and their psychological well-being. British youth sport participants (N = 326, Mage = 13.81, range = 11–18 years) completed a survey assessing the coaching climate, participants’ perceived life skills development (teamwork, goal setting, time management, emotional skills, interpersonal communication, social skills, leadership, and problem solving and decision making) and psychological well-being (self-esteem, positive affect, and satisfaction with life). In all analyses, the coaching climate was positively related to young peoples’ perceived development of life skills within sport and their psychological well-being. Total life skills development (a summative score of all eight life skills scores) was positively related to all three psychological well-being indicators – providing support for the “pile-up” effect – and partially mediated the relationships between the coaching climate and participants’ psychological well-being. Interpretation of the results indicated that coaches should foster the development of multiple life skills in youth sport participants, as they are associated with participants’ psychological well-being. One way this can be achieved is through autonomy-supportive coaching behaviours.

The coaching process of the expert coach: a coach led approach

Abstract The purpose of this study was to engage expert coaches’ in an exploration, conceptualisation, and modelling of their coaching process. Six coaches, each developed a model, with accompanying explanation, of “their” coaching process. These models and explanations were content analysed to identify features of the coaching process and included examination of how to represent the process pictorially. The coaches were then interviewed where they discussed the identified features and how to represent their coaching process as a “realistic picture”. As a result of this process of data collection, analysis, and member checking, the coaches’ conceptualisation of the coaching process and how best to model it was agreed amongst participants. There were seven core principles that underpinned the model: learning partnership; individualised; clear structure with evolving process; orchestrating approach; influenced by coaching environment; holistic and flexible process; and adaptable and dynamic; and six component parts that described the operationalisation of the coaching process: values, knowledge, and skills; contextual constraint; learning environment; preparation phase; performance phase; review phase. The agreed upon pictorial representation of their coaching process brought the process “to life” and provides researchers, coaches, and coach developers with a conceptualisation of the process by coaches for coaches.

Timing changes during accommodation to a compliant surface in jumping

TIMING CHANGES DURING ACCOMMODATION TO A COMPLIANT SURFACE IN JUMPING Ross H. Sanders and Justine B. Allen School of Physical Education, University of Otayo, Dunedin, New Zealand To better understand the process of tiptimisiny jumping performance, this study investigated the changes in the temporal patterns of hip, knee, and ankle joint torques, joint power, and kinematics as subjects with movement patterns established for drop jumps (jumps for maximum height after dropping from a height onto a surface) on an uncompliant (hard) surface adjusted to a compliant (sprung) surface. Six volunteer physical education students practised drop jumps for maximum height from a hard surface (force platform) for 200 trials to ensure that the movement pattern of drop jumping from hard surfaces was established. (stiffness = 22950N/m). Subjects then performed 190 jumps from the sprung surface One NAC 200 high speed video camera operating at 200 fps was used to record the motion in the sayittal plane of retro reflective markers attached to the subject and sprung surface. model. These defined the segment endpoints of a 7 segment body With practice on the sprung surface there was an increase in hip torques at the commencement of the contact period and a reduced hip flexion after first contact with the surface. Consequently, there was a reduced power flow to the hip extensor muscles and a reduction in energy absorbed. With practice on the sprung surface subjects advanced the timing of peak knee torque. As a result, knee flexion after first contact with the surface and energy absorbed by the knee extensors were reduced and energy stored in the spring was increased. There was also a change in sequencing of peak joint torques and peak joint power from a proximal to distal (hip-knee-ankle) sequence in the hard surface trials to a knee-hip-ankle sequence. However, the hip-knee-ankle sequence of initiating joint extension and attaining peak joint angular velocity became more distinct.