K. Anne-Isola Nekaris

Impending extinction crisis of the world's primates: why primates matter

Impending extinction of the world’s primates due to human activities; immediate global attention is needed to reverse the trend. Nonhuman primates, our closest biological relatives, play important roles in the livelihoods, cultures, and religions of many societies and offer unique insights into human evolution, biology, behavior, and the threat of emerging diseases. They are an essential component of tropical biodiversity, contributing to forest regeneration and ecosystem health. Current information shows the existence of 504 species in 79 genera distributed in the Neotropics, mainland Africa, Madagascar, and Asia. Alarmingly, ~60% of primate species are now threatened with extinction and ~75% have declining populations. This situation is the result of escalating anthropogenic pressures on primates and their habitats—mainly global and local market demands, leading to extensive habitat loss through the expansion of industrial agriculture, large-scale cattle ranching, logging, oil and gas drilling, mining, dam building, and the construction of new road networks in primate range regions. Other important drivers are increased bushmeat hunting and the illegal trade of primates as pets and primate body parts, along with emerging threats, such as climate change and anthroponotic diseases. Often, these pressures act in synergy, exacerbating primate population declines. Given that primate range regions overlap extensively with a large, and rapidly growing, human population characterized by high levels of poverty, global attention is needed immediately to reverse the looming risk of primate extinctions and to attend to local human needs in sustainable ways. Raising global scientific and public awareness of the plight of the world’s primates and the costs of their loss to ecosystem health and human society is imperative.

Tickled to Death: Analysing Public Perceptions of 'Cute' Videos of Threatened Species (Slow Lorises - Nycticebus spp.) on Web 2.0 Sites

Background The internet is gaining importance in global wildlife trade and changing perceptions of threatened species. There is little data available to examine the impact that popular Web 2.0 sites play on public perceptions of threatened species. YouTube videos portraying wildlife allow us to quantify these perceptions. Methodology/Principal Findings Focussing on a group of threatened and globally protected primates, slow lorises, we quantify public attitudes towards wildlife conservation by analysing 12,411 comments and associated data posted on a viral YouTube video ‘tickling slow loris’ over a 33-months period. In the initial months a quarter of commentators indicated wanting a loris as a pet, but as facts about their conservation and ecology became more prevalent this dropped significantly. Endorsements, where people were directed to the site by celebrities, resulted mostly in numerous neutral responses with few links to conservation or awareness. Two conservation-related events, linked to Wikipedia and the airing of a television documentary, led to an increase in awareness, and ultimately to the removal of the analysed video. Conclusions/Significance Slow loris videos that have gone viral have introduced these primates to a large cross-section of society that would not normally come into contact with them. Analyses of webometric data posted on the internet allow us quickly to gauge societal sentiments. We showed a clear temporal change in some views expressed but without an apparent increase in knowledge about the conservation plight of the species, or the illegal nature of slow loris trade. Celebrity endorsement of videos showing protected wildlife increases visits to such sites, but does not educate about conservation issues. The strong desire of commentators to express their want for one as a pet demonstrates the need for Web 2.0 sites to provide a mechanism via which illegal animal material can be identified and policed.

Mad, bad and dangerous to know: the biochemistry, ecology and evolution of slow loris venom.

Only seven types of mammals are known to be venomous, including slow lorises (Nycticebus spp.). Despite the evolutionary significance of this unique adaptation amongst Nycticebus, the structure and function of slow loris venom is only just beginning to be understood. Here we review what is known about the chemical structure of slow loris venom. Research on a handful of captive samples from three of eight slow loris species reveals that the protein within slow loris venom resembles the disulphide-bridged heterodimeric structure of Fel-d1, more commonly known as cat allergen. In a comparison of N. pygmaeus and N. coucang, 212 and 68 compounds were found, respectively. Venom is activated by combining the oil from the brachial arm gland with saliva, and can cause death in small mammals and anaphylactic shock and death in humans. We examine four hypotheses for the function of slow loris venom. The least evidence is found for the hypothesis that loris venom evolved to kill prey. Although the venom’s primary function in nature seems to be as a defense against parasites and conspecifics, it may also serve to thwart olfactory-orientated predators. Combined with numerous other serpentine features of slow lorises, including extra vertebra in the spine leading to snake-like movement, serpentine aggressive vocalisations, a long dark dorsal stripe and the venom itself, we propose that venom may have evolved to mimic cobras (Naja sp.). During the Miocene when both slow lorises and cobras migrated throughout Southeast Asia, the evolution of venom may have been an adaptive strategy against predators used by slow lorises as a form of Müllerian mimicry with spectacled cobras.

Comparative Ecology of Exudate Feeding by Lorises (Nycticebus, Loris) and Pottos (Perodicticus, Arctocebus)

Craniomandibular variation characterizes the five species of Asian slow loris (Nycticebus), but until now, few ecological studies have been available to understand the factors that underpin it. Here, we review feeding ecology of Asian lorises and African pottos, with emphasis on the importance of exudate feeding, including several new studies. We then present novel data on this behavior based on a 10-week study of N. coucang at Pusat Penyelamatan Satwa, Lampung, Sumatra, Indonesia. Lorises and pottos range in body size from 100 g (Loris tardigradus) to more than 2 kg (N. bengalensis). Three of the smallest species (Arctocebus calabarensis, A. aureus, L. tardigradus) rely mainly on insects and small invertebrates as dietary staples. Although Perodicticus is known to eat gum only from already open wounds, active gouging of bark to extract exudates or consumption of plant sap has now been observed in all other lorises. Five species (P. potto, N. coucang, N. bengalensis, N. javanicus, N. pygmaeus) rely on exudates as a key food source. Although at all field sites, exudates are eaten all year round, at some, they become a key resource in times of food scarcity. Exudates have been extracted from 14 different plant families; Fabaceae is possibly the most important, currently consumed by all exudativorous species. Despite the lack of keeled nails, gouging behavior of lorises closely resembles that of marmosets and fork-marked lemurs, and involves active breaking of the plant surface; the audible nature of this behavior, as well as the characteristic marks left behind, makes it useful for determining the presence of Nycticebus in a forest. The captive lorises in our study also gouged regularly, recorded 2.9 times per hour for both adults and juveniles. Urine and facial marking accompanied the majority of gouges, a behavior recorded before only for marmosets. The functions of this behavior as a resource sharing strategy are explored. The importance of providing opportunity for gouging for captive lorises is also discussed, as a way to mitigate the periodontal diseases, which plague Nycticebus in captivity. We conclude by discussing the importance of a better understanding of this relatively unique behavior to improve our knowledge of morphological correlates to loris taxonomy and ecology, and captive management via dietary changes and enrichment.

Remarkable ancient divergences amongst neglected lorisiform primates.

Lorisiform primates (Primates: Strepsirrhini: Lorisiformes) represent almost 10% of the living primate species and are widely distributed in sub‐Saharan Africa and South/South‐East Asia; however, their taxonomy, evolutionary history, and biogeography are still poorly understood. In this study we report the largest molecular phylogeny in terms of the number of represented taxa. We sequenced the complete mitochondrial cytochrome b gene for 86 lorisiform specimens, including ∼80% of all the species currently recognized. Our results support the monophyly of the Galagidae, but a common ancestry of the Lorisinae and Perodicticinae (family Lorisidae) was not recovered. These three lineages have early origins, with the Galagidae and the Lorisinae diverging in the Oligocene at about 30 Mya and the Perodicticinae emerging in the early Miocene. Our mitochondrial phylogeny agrees with recent studies based on nuclear data, and supports Euoticus as the oldest galagid lineage and the polyphyletic status of Galagoides. Moreover, we have elucidated phylogenetic relationships for several species never included before in a molecular phylogeny. The results obtained in this study suggest that lorisiform diversity remains substantially underestimated and that previously unnoticed cryptic diversity might be present within many lineages, thus urgently requiring a comprehensive taxonomic revision of this primate group. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London

Distribution and Conservation Of the Patas Monkey Erythrocebus patas In Kenya

ABSTRACT From December 2003 through May 2004, a survey was conducted on patas monkeys Erythrocebus patas in Kenya to determine the historic distribution, current distribution, conservation status, and threats. Patas were found in Laikipia District, Busia, West-Pokot, Turkana, Makueni and Taita Taveta Districts. Historically, patas were present in west, northwest, central and south Kenya. The geographic range of patas in Kenya has declined from ca. 88 800 km2 to roughly 48 200 km2 and the gaps among populations has increased. The current geographic range is ca. 54% of the known historic range, or ca. 8% of Kenyas land surface area. All survey sites have their unique patas conservation challenges. Patas are occasionally killed as a consequence of crop raiding and for consumption. Water shortage is a threat to the survival of patas at some sites in Kenya. Habitat loss and degradation (due to human activities or wildlife) are the primary conservation problems for patas at all sites. This study and its recommendations should be taken as a basis for patas conservation action in Kenya.

Anaphylactic shock following the bite of a wild Kayan slow loris ( Nycticebus kayan ): implications for slow loris conservation

BackgroundAsian slow lorises (Nycticebus spp.) are one of few known venomous mammals, yet until now only one published case report has documented the impact of their venomous bite on humans. We describe the reaction of a patient to the bite of a subadult Nycticebus kayan, which occurred in the Mulu District of Sarawak in 2012.FindingsWithin minutes of the bite, the patient experienced paraesthesia in the right side of the jaw, ear and right foot. By 40 minutes, swelling of the face was pronounced. The patient was admitted to Mulu National Park Health Clinic/Klinik Kesihatan Taman Mulu Tarikh, at which time he was experiencing: swollen mouth, chest pain, mild abdominal pain, nausea, numbness of the lips and mouth, shortness of breath, weakness, agitation and the sensation of pressure in the ears due to swelling. The blood pressure was 110/76, the heart ratio was 116 and oxygen saturation was 96%. The patient was treated intramuscularly with adrenaline (0.5 mL), followed by intravenous injection of hydrocortisone (400 mg) and then intravenous fluid therapy of normal saline (500 mg). By 8 h10 the next day, the patient’s condition had significantly improved with no nausea, and with blood pressure and pulse rate stable.ConclusionsA handful of anecdotes further support the real danger that slow loris bites pose to humans. As the illegal pet trade is a major factor in the decline of these threatened species, we hope that by reporting on the danger of handling these animals it may help to reduce their desirability as a pet.

Exudates and Animal Prey Characterize Slow Loris ( Nycticebus pygmaeus, N. coucang and N. javanicus ) Diet in Captivity and After Release into the Wild

We present dietary data for individuals of three species of slow loris rescued from the pet trade: Nycticebus pygmaeus released and radio-tracked in Vietnam and N. coucang and N. javanicus held in captivity in Indonesia. Contrary to popular belief that slow lorises are frugivores, our data support recent studies that slow lorises are one of few primates specialized for regular extractive gouging of plant exudates, and capable of consuming insect prey containing secondary compounds. These behaviors are present in juveniles as young as 4 months. This specialized diet should be considered when maintaining captive individuals, and when planning reintroduction programs.

Density estimates of Panamanian owl monkeys (Aotus zonalis) in three habitat types.

The resolution of the ambiguity surrounding the taxonomy of Aotus means data on newly classified species are urgently needed for conservation efforts. We conducted a study on the Panamanian owl monkey (Aotus zonalis) between May and July 2008 at three localities in Chagres National Park, located east of the Panama Canal, using the line transect method to quantify abundance and distribution. Vegetation surveys were also conducted to provide a baseline quantification of the three habitat types. We observed 33 individuals within 16 groups in two out of the three sites. Population density was highest in Campo Chagres with 19.7 individuals/km2 and intermediate densities of 14.3 individuals/km2 were observed at Cerro Azul. In la Llana A. zonalis was not found to be present. The presence of A. zonalis in Chagres National Park, albeit at seemingly low abundance, is encouraging. A longer‐term study will be necessary to validate the further abundance estimates gained in this pilot study in order to make conservation policy decisions. Am. J. Primatol. 72:187–192, 2010.

Long-term field studies of lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers

Lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers are socially and ecologically diverse primates that include some of the most endangered mammals. We review results of long-term studies of 15 lemur species from 7 sites in Madagascar and 1 species each of loris and tarsier in Indonesia. We emphasize that the existence of long-term study populations is a crucial prerequisite for planning and conducting shorter studies on specific topics, as exemplified by various ecophysiological studies of lemurs. Extended studies of known individuals have revealed variation in social organization within and between ecologically similar species. Even for these primates with relatively fast life histories, it required more than a decade of paternity data to characterize male reproductive skew. The long-term consequences of female rank on reproductive success remain poorly known, however. Long-term monitoring of known individuals is the only method to obtain data on life-history adaptations, which appear to be shaped by predation in the species covered here; long-term studies are also needed for addressing particular questions in community ecology. The mere presence of long-term projects has a positive effect on the protection of study sites, and they generate unique data that are fundamental to conservation measures, such as close monitoring of populations.