K. Paul Kirkbride

Illicit drugs and the environment — A review

Illicit drugs and their metabolites are the latest group of emerging pollutants. Determination of their concentration in environment (such as water bodies, soil, sediment, air) is an indirect tool to estimate the community level consumption of illicit drug and to evaluate potential ecotoxicological impacts from chronic low level exposure. They enter the wastewater network as unaltered drugs and/or their active metabolites by human excretion after illegal consumption or by accidental or deliberate disposal from clandestine drug laboratories. This article critically reviews the occurrence and concentration levels of illicit drugs and their metabolites in different environmental compartments (e.g., wastewater, surface waters, groundwater, drinking water, and ambient air) and their potential impact on the ecosystem. There is limited published information available on the presence of illicit drugs in the environment, reports are available mainly from European countries, UK, USA, and Canada but there is a lack of information from the remainder of the world. Although the environmental concentrations are not very high, they can potentially impact the human health and ecosystem functioning. Cocaine, morphine, amphetamine, and MDMA have potent pharmacological activities and their presence as complex mixtures in water may cause adverse effect on aquatic organisms and human health. However, there is no current regulation demanding the determination of occurrence of these emerging pollutants in treated wastewater, surface water, drinking water, or atmosphere. Thus, critical investigation on distribution pattern of this new group of emerging contaminant and their potential harmful impact on our environment needs immediate attention.

Dancing with "Death": P-Methoxyamphetamine Overdose and Its Acute Management

Para-methoxyamphetamine (PMA) is a substituted synthetic amphetamine used in the recreational drug scene. It is unusual because of the high incidence of significant morbidity and mortality in overdose. We report a case of PMA overdose in South Australia, and review our experience with the drug. We review the literature on PMA overdose and offer suggestions on the management of overdose with this dangerous drug.

Application of time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry to the in situ analysis of ballpoint pen inks on paper

Results presented in this paper demonstrate that time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) can be used for the analysis of ballpoint pen inks producing mass spectra that were highly characteristic of the constituent dyes and inorganic substances used in their formulations. Analysis was performed directly off the substrate (typically document paper) containing the ink with no interference from the background matrix. The resultant spectra were highly characteristic of the ink formulation and could be used to confidently discriminate between different inks. No extraction or complicated sample preparation was necessary which ensures the integrity of the document under examination. This is not only important in forensic applications but also indicates the potential for the application of this technique to the analysis of inks on documents of historical or archaeological significance. TOF-SIMS was also shown to be capable of analysing ink containing a mixture of dyes, initially separated by thin-layer chromatography, directly on the chromatographic material.

The Occurrence and Incorporation of Copper and Zinc in Hair and their Potential Role as Bioindicators: A Review

This article reviews evidence that suggests Cu and Zn concentrations are not altered significantly by exogenous processes and may be useful in applications of hair analysis. The review attempts to identify what Cu and Zn concentrations may actually indicate biogenically and investigates the mechanisms by which they are incorporated into hair. Associations with specific hair components are proposed and avenues for development as a bioindicator are identified. Areas of research that offer promise in application or confirming the use of Cu and Zn are also indicated. Correlations and relationships with other health disorders are reviewed. Endogenous blood concentrations may also explain alterations in hair structure relating to breast cancer.

Synthesis of 4-methyl-5-arylpyrimidines and 4-arylpyrimidines: route specific markers for the Leuckardt preparation of amphetamine, 4-methoxyamphetamine, and 4-methylthioamphetamine

General synthetic routes to 4-methyl-5-arylpyrimidines and 5-arylpyrimidines are described. 4-Benzylpyrimidine, 4-methyl-5-phenylpyrimidine, 4-(4-methoxybenzyl)pyrimidine, and 4-methyl-5-(4-methoxyphenyl)pyrimidine have been positively identified as route-specific by-products in the Leuckardt preparations of amphetamine and 4-methoxyamphetamine. Using headspace solid phase microextraction (SPME) 4-(4-methoxybenzyl)pyrimidine and 4-methyl-5-(4-methoxyphenyl)pyrimidine have been identified in illicit tablets containing 4-methoxyamphetamine. This is an indication that illicit laboratories use the Leuckardt method for the preparation of 4-methoxyamphetamine. Flatliner tablets containing 4-methylthioamphetamine have been screened for the presence of 4-(4-methylthiobenzyl)pyrimidine and 4-methyl-5-(4-methylthiophenyl)pyrimidine using both headspace and aqueous phase SPME. As these pyrimidines were not detected it would appear likely that illicit laboratories are not using the Leuckardt method for the preparation of 4-methylthioamphetamine.

Chemosensory genes identified in the antennal transcriptome of the blowfly Calliphora stygia

BackgroundBlowflies have relevance in areas of forensic science, agriculture, and medicine, primarily due to the ability of their larvae to develop on flesh. While it is widely accepted that blowflies rely heavily on olfaction for identifying and locating hosts, there is limited research regarding the underlying molecular mechanisms. Using next generation sequencing (Illumina), this research examined the antennal transcriptome of Calliphora stygia (Fabricius) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) to identify members of the major chemosensory gene families necessary for olfaction.ResultsRepresentative proteins from all chemosensory gene families essential in insect olfaction were identified in the antennae of the blowfly C. stygia, including 50 odorant receptors, 22 ionotropic receptors, 21 gustatory receptors, 28 odorant binding proteins, 4 chemosensory proteins, and 3 sensory neuron membrane proteins. A total of 97 candidate cytochrome P450s and 39 esterases, some of which may act as odorant degrading enzymes, were also identified. Importantly, co-receptors necessary for the proper function of ligand-binding receptors were identified. Putative orthologues for the conserved antennal ionotropic receptors and candidate gustatory receptors for carbon dioxide detection were also amongst the identified proteins.ConclusionsThis research provides a comprehensive novel resource that will be fundamental for future studies regarding blowfly olfaction. Such information presents potential benefits to the forensic, pest control, and medical areas, and could assist in the understanding of insecticide resistance and targeted control through cross-species comparisons.

Characterisation of 0.22 caliber rimfire gunshot residues by time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS): a preliminary study

The application of time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) for the characterisation of gunshot residue (GSR) from 0.22 caliber rimfire ammunition is reported. Results obtained by TOF-SIMS were compared with conventional scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies. As could be expected, TOF-SIMS exhibited greater elemental sensitivity than SEM equipped with energy dispersive X-ray detection (SEM-EDX), and was also capable of detecting fragments characteristic of inorganic compounds. This preliminary study indicates that TOF-SIMS offers substantial potential for forensic GSR examinations as a complementary technique to SEM-EDX. In addition TOF-SIMS is applicable to the analysis of individual particles in the typical size range encountered in GSR casework.

Biological organisms as volatile compound detectors: A review

The detection and identification of volatile compounds is essential to the successful undertaking of numerous forensic analyses. Biological olfactory systems possess the extraordinary ability to not only detect many thousands of distinct volatile compounds (odors) but also to discriminate between them. Whole-organism biological sensors, such as detection canines, have been employed in forensic science as volatile compound detectors for many years. A variety of insects including bees, wasps, and moths, which have also been shown to detect volatile compounds of forensic significance, have been investigated for their potential application in field-based detection systems. While the fundamental aim for many developers of portable instruments is to replicate the remarkable ability of biological olfactory systems, such analytical equipment is yet to possess the detection and discriminatory powers achieved by biological sensors. Recent literature reveals an increasing interest in olfactory receptors - the biological components that impart olfactory ability - for detecting volatile compounds associated with forensically significant substances such as explosives and illicit drugs. This paper reviews the literature regarding the current, and potential future, use of biological organisms as sensors for forensic science applications.

Applications of synchrotron radiation in forensic trace evidence analysis.

Synchrotron radiation sources have proven to be highly beneficial in many fields of research for the characterization of materials. However, only a very limited proportion of studies have been conducted by the forensic science community. This is an area in which the analytical benefits provided by synchrotron sources could prove to be very important. This review summarises the applications found for synchrotron radiation in a forensic trace evidence context as well as other areas of research that strive for similar analytical scrutiny and/or are applied to similar sample materials. The benefits of synchrotron radiation are discussed in relation to common infrared, X-ray fluorescence, tomographic and briefly, X-ray diffraction and scattering techniques. In addition, X-ray absorption fine structure analysis (incorporating XANES and EXAFS) is highlighted as an area in which significant contributions into the characterization of materials can be obtained. The implications of increased spatial resolution on microheterogeneity are also considered and discussed.

Forensic intelligence framework. Part II: Study of the main generic building blocks and challenges through the examples of illicit drugs and false identity documents monitoring

The development of forensic intelligence relies on the expression of suitable models that better represent the contribution of forensic intelligence in relation to the criminal justice system, policing and security. Such models assist in comparing and evaluating methods and new technologies, provide transparency and foster the development of new applications. Interestingly, strong similarities between two separate projects focusing on specific forensic science areas were recently observed. These observations have led to the induction of a general model (Part I) that could guide the use of any forensic science case data in an intelligence perspective. The present article builds upon this general approach by focusing on decisional and organisational issues. The article investigates the comparison process and evaluation system that lay at the heart of the forensic intelligence framework, advocating scientific decision criteria and a structured but flexible and dynamic architecture. These building blocks are crucial and clearly lay within the expertise of forensic scientists. However, it is only part of the problem. Forensic intelligence includes other blocks with their respective interactions, decision points and tensions (e.g. regarding how to guide detection and how to integrate forensic information with other information). Formalising these blocks identifies many questions and potential answers. Addressing these questions is essential for the progress of the discipline. Such a process requires clarifying the role and place of the forensic scientist within the whole process and their relationship to other stakeholders.