Kalpana S. Paudel

Programmable transdermal drug delivery of nicotine using carbon nanotube membranes

Carbon nanotube (CNT) membranes were employed as the active element of a switchable transdermal drug delivery device that can facilitate more effective treatments of drug abuse and addiction. Due to the dramatically fast flow through CNT cores, high charge density, and small pore dimensions, highly efficient electrophoretic pumping through functionalized CNT membrane was achieved. These membranes were integrated with a nicotine formulation to obtain switchable transdermal nicotine delivery rates on human skin (in vitro) and are consistent with a Fickian diffusion in series model. The transdermal nicotine delivery device was able to successfully switch between high (1.3 ± 0.65 μmol/hr-cm2) and low (0.33 ± 0.22 μmol/hr-cm2) fluxes that coincide with therapeutic demand levels for nicotine cessation treatment. These highly energy efficient programmable devices with minimal skin irritation and no skin barrier disruption would open an avenue for single application long-wear patches for therapies that require variable or programmable delivery rates.

Transdermal delivery of naltrexol and skin permeability lifetime after microneedle treatment in hairless guinea pigs

Controlled-release delivery of 6-beta-naltrexol (NTXOL), the major active metabolite of naltrexone, via a transdermal patch is desirable for treatment of alcoholism. Unfortunately, NTXOL does not diffuse across skin at a therapeutic rate. Therefore, the focus of this study was to evaluate microneedle (MN) skin permeation enhancement of NTXOLs hydrochloride salt in hairless guinea pigs. Specifically, these studies were designed to determine the lifetime of MN-created aqueous pore pathways. MN pore lifetime was estimated by pharmacokinetic evaluation, transepidermal water loss (TEWL) and visualization of MN-treated skin pore diameters using light microscopy. A 3.6-fold enhancement in steady-state plasma concentration was observed in vivo with MN treated skin with NTXOL.HCl, as compared to NTXOL base. TEWL measurements and microscopic evaluation of stained MN-treated guinea pig skin indicated the presence of pores, suggesting a feasible nonlipid bilayer pathway for enhanced transdermal delivery. Overall, MN-assisted transdermal delivery appears viable for at least 48 h after MN-application.

Transdermal delivery of bupropion and its active metabolite, hydroxybupropion: a prodrug strategy as an alternative approach

This investigation includes an evaluation of the percutaneous absorption of bupropion (BUP) and hydroxybupropion (BUPOH) in vitro and in vivo. In addition, a carbamate prodrug of BUPOH (But-BUPOH) was evaluated in vitro. In vitro diffusion studies were conducted in a flow-through diffusion cell system. The in vitro mean steady-state flux of BUP was significantly higher (p < 0.001) compared to BUPOH (320 +/- 16 nmol cm(-2) h(-1) vs. 27 +/- 4 nmol cm(-2) h(-1)). Additionally, a good correlation existed between in vitro and in vivo results. Mean steady-state plasma concentrations of 442 +/- 32 ng/mL and125 +/- 18 ng/mL were maintained over 48 h after topical application of BUP and BUPOH in hairless guinea pigs in vivo, respectively. Although BUP traversed human skin at rates sufficient to achieve required plasma levels, it is chemically unstable and hygroscopic, and unsuitable for transdermal formulation. On the other hand, BUPOH is stable but its transport across skin is much slower. Alternatively, the prodrug But-BUPOH was found to be stable, and also provided a 2.7-fold increase in the transdermal flux of BUPOH across human skin in vitro. Thus, But-BUPOH provides a viable option for the transdermal delivery of BUPOH.

In vivo evaluation of a transdermal codrug of 6-β-naltrexol linked to hydroxybupropion in hairless guinea pigs

6-Beta-naltrexol is the major active metabolite of naltrexone, NTX, a potent mu-opioid receptor antagonist used in the treatment of alcohol dependence and opioid abuse. Compared to naloxone, NTX has a longer duration of action largely attributed to 6-beta-naltrexol. This study was carried out in order to determine percutaneous absorption of a transdermal codrug of naltrexol, 6-beta-naltrexol-hydroxybupropion codrug (CB-NTXOL-BUPOH), in hairless guinea pigs as well as to evaluate the safety of 6-beta-naltrexol for development as a transdermal dosage form. This codrug may be useful in the simultaneous treatment of alcohol dependence and tobacco addiction. The carbonate codrug traversed the skin at a faster rate than 6-beta-naltrexol. 6-Beta-naltrexol equivalent steady state plasma concentrations of 6.4 ng/ml were obtained after application of the codrug as compared to 1.2 ng/ml from 6-beta-naltrexol base. The steady state plasma concentration of hydroxybupropion after codrug application was 6.9 ng/ml. Skin sensitization and irritation tested in the hairless guinea pigs using the Buehler method revealed that 6-beta-naltrexol had no skin sensitizing potential. The method was validated with a known sensitizer, p-phenylenediamine, which induced sensitization in 90% of the animals. 6-beta-Naltrexol caused only mild transient skin irritation after the initial application of the patch. During subsequent applications, erythema was slightly increased but no skin damage was observed. In conclusion, a transdermal codrug of 6-beta-naltrexol could be a viable alternative treatment for alcohol and opiate abuse.

Cannabidiol bioavailability after nasal and transdermal application: effect of permeation enhancers

Context: The nonpsychoactive cannabinoid, cannabidiol (CBD), has great potential for the treatment of chronic and ‘breakthrough’ pain that may occur in certain conditions like cancer. To fulfill this goal, suitable noninvasive drug delivery systems need to be developed for CBD. Chronic pain relief can be best achieved through the transdermal route, whereas ‘breakthrough’ pain can be best alleviated with intranasal (IN) delivery. Combining IN and transdermal delivery for CBD may serve to provide patient needs-driven treatment in the form of a nonaddictive nonopioid therapy. Objective: Herein we have evaluated the IN and transdermal delivery of CBD with and without permeation enhancers. Materials and Methods: In vivo studies in rats and guinea pigs were carried out to assess nasal and transdermal permeation, respectively. Results: CBD was absorbed intranasally within 10 minutes with a bioavailability of 34–46%, except with 100% polyethylene glycol formulation in rats. Bioavailability did not improve with enhancers. The steady-state plasma concentration of CBD in guinea pigs after transdermal gel application was 6.3 ± 2.1 ng/mL, which was attained at 15.5 ± 11.7 hours. The achievement of a significant steady-state plasma concentration indicates that CBD is useful for chronic pain treatment through this route of administration. The steady-state concentration increased by 3.7-fold in the presence of enhancer. A good in vitro and in vivo correlation existed for transdermal studies. Conclusion: The results of this study indicated that CBD could be successfully delivered through the IN and transdermal routes.

Development of a codrug approach for sustained drug delivery across microneedle-treated skin

Microneedle (MN) enhanced transdermal drug delivery enables the transport of a host of molecules that cannot be delivered across the skin by passive diffusion alone. However, the skin being a self-regenerating organ heals itself and thus prevents delivery of molecules through micropores for a 7-day time period, the ideal transdermal delivery goal. Hence, it is necessary to employ a second drug molecule, a cyclooxygenase inhibitor to enhance pore lifetime by decreasing local subclinical inflammatory response following MN treatment. A codrug approach using a 3-O-ester codrug of the model drug naltrexone (NTX) with diclofenac (DIC), a cyclooxygenase inhibitor, was tested in vitro as well as in vivo to look at stability, bioconversion and permeation. The results indicated that the approach could be useful for transdermal drug delivery of NTX from a single patch for a week, but stability and solubility optimization will be required for the codrug before it can deliver significant levels of NTX into the plasma. The skin concentration of DIC was high enough to keep the pores open in vivo in a hairless guinea pig model as demonstrated by day seven pore visualization studies.

Near Infrared Spectrometry for the Quantification of Human Dermal Absorption of Econazole Nitrate and Estradiol

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to demonstrate the use of near-infrared (NIR) spectrometry for the in vitro quantification of econazole nitrate (EN) and estradiol (EST) in human skin.MethodsNIR spectra were collected from EN and EST powders to verify the presence of NIR chromophores. One percent EN cream, a saturated solution of EN, or 0.25% EST solution was applied to human skin. NIR spectra were collected and one-point net analyte signal (NAS) multivariate calibration was used to predict the drug concentrations. NIR results were validated against known skin concentrations measured by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis of solvent extracts.ResultsNIR spectroscopy measured dermal absorption from saturated solutions of EN on human skin with an r2 = 0.990, standard error of estimation (SEE) = 2.46%, and a standard error of performance (SEP) = 3.55%, EN cream on skin with an r2 = 0.987, SEE = 2.30%, and SEP = 2.66%, and 0.25% solutions of EST on skin with an r2 = 0.987, SEE = 3.30%, and SEP = 5.66%. Despite low permeation amounts of both drugs through the stratum corneum into human tissue, the NIR signal-to-noise ratio was greater than three, even for the lowest concentrations.ConclusionNIR analyses paralleled the results obtained from HPLC, and thus could serve as a viable alternative for measuring the topical bioavailability/bioequivalence of different EN and EST formulations. Because these experiments were conducted in human tissue, this research suggests an all-optical in vivo method of measurement for dermal absorption could be developed.

Programmable transdermal delivery of nicotine in hairless guinea pigs using carbon nanotube membrane pumps.

A compact switchable transdermal nicotine patch device was demonstrated to be effective in vivo in a hairless guinea pig animal model. This required the development and validation of a quantitative method for the simultaneous determination of cotinine and nicotine in hairless guinea pig plasma by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Nicotine metabolism in hairless guinea pigs is rapid and cotinine was found to be the viable nicotine marker. The portable carbon nanotube membrane device, powered by a 1.5 V watch battery, was demonstrated to be a power efficient method to pump nicotine at levels six to eight times that of passive diffusion. Cotinine blood plasma levels in hairless guinea pigs were seen to increase from 6 to 12 ng/mL when the patch was turned from passive diffusion to an active pumping state. These nicotine patch devices are highly promising for potential clinical applications, with programmed delivery based on remote counseling, in order to improve smoking cessation treatments.

Permeation of WIN 55,212-2, a potent cannabinoid receptor agonist, across human tracheo-bronchial tissue in vitro and rat nasal epithelium in vivo

The aim of this study was to investigate the intranasal absorption of R‐(+)‐WIN 55,212‐2 mesylate in vivo and in vitro. Permeation experiments of R‐(+)‐WIN 55,212‐2 formulations with 2% dimethyl‐β‐cyclodextrin (DMβCD), 2% trimethyl‐β‐cyclodextrin (TMβCD) or 2% randomly methylated‐β‐cyclodextrin (RAMβCD) in 1:1 propylene glycol/saline and 1.5% propylene glycol + 3% Tween 80 in saline were conducted using EpiAirway™ tissue and an anesthetized rat nasal absorption model, respectively. Samples were analysed by liquid chromatography‐mass spectrometry. Mucosal tolerance was screened using paracellular marker permeation and tissue viability as indices. Nasal absorption of WIN 55,212‐2 was rapid, with a tmax (time of peak concentration) of 0.17 to 0.35 h in vivo. Relative to 1.5% propylene glycol + 3% Tween 80 (control), 1:1 propylene glycol/saline, RAMβCD, DMβCD and TMβCD resulted in 24‐, 20‐, 17‐ and 10‐fold WIN 55,212‐2 permeation increases in vitro, respectively. The in vivo absolute bioavailabilities were also increased with 1:1 propylene glycol/saline, RAMβCD, DMβCD and TMβCD compared to 1.5% propylene glycol + 3% Tween 80 (0.15 vs. 0.66‐0.77). The viability of the EpiAirway™ tissues was significantly reduced by DMβCD and TMβCD formulations. This study showed that WIN 55,212‐2 mesylate can be delivered via the nasal route. Absorption of R‐(+)‐WIN 55,212‐2 was rapid and bioavailability was significantly improved using methylated cyclodextrins and propylene glycol‐based cosolvent.

Programmable Transdermal Clonidine Delivery Through Voltage-Gated Carbon Nanotube Membranes

Oral dosage forms and traditional transdermal patches are inadequate for complex clonidine therapy dosing schemes, because of the variable dose/flux requirement for the treatment of opioid withdrawal symptoms. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the in vitro transdermal flux changes of clonidine in response to alterations in carbon nanotube (CNT) delivery rates by applying various electrical bias. Additional skin diffusion studies were carried out to demonstrate the therapeutic feasibility of the system. This study demonstrated that application of a small electrical bias (-600 mV) to the CNT membrane on the skin resulted in a 4.7-fold increase in clonidine flux as compared with no bias (0 mV) application. The high and low clonidine flux values were very close to the desired variable flux of clonidine for the treatment of opioid withdrawal symptoms. Therapeutic feasibility studies demonstrated that CNT membrane served as the rate-limiting step to clonidine diffusion and lag and transition times were suitable for the clonidine therapy. Skin elimination studies revealed that clonidine depletion from the skin would not negatively affect clonidine therapy. Overall, this study showed that clonidine administration difficulties associated with the treatment of opiate withdrawal symptoms can be reduced with the programmable CNT membrane transdermal system.