Kaneyoshi Ishihara

Investigation of the Children's Version of the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire with Primary and Junior High School Pupils in Japan

A childrens version of the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire was administered to approximately 1150 pupils of primary school and 500 pupils of junior high school. Analysis showed that the mean morningness-eveningness scores significantly changed to eveningness from Grade 4 of primary school to the Grade 1 junior high school and suggested that circadian phase might be established by the older age (grade).

Age-related changes of sleeping pattern during adolescence.

A questionnaire concerning sleep‐related lifestyle, and physical and mental health was administered to the students of junior high schools (12–15 years), high schools (15–18 years), and universities. While bedtime linearly delayed with age throughout the adolescence (from junior high school to university age), rise time remained constant until high school ages. As a result, total nocturnal sleep time considerably decreased during this period. Rise time then delayed with age in the university sample. Daytime sleepiness increased with age peaking at high school age, then decreased gradually during university age. Several physical and mental health conditions got worse during high school and university ages. Compared with the adolescent samples, daytime sleepiness and mental health complaints were very low in the adult samples.

Validity of the Japanese version of the Morningness–Eveningness Questionnaire.

The Morningness-Eveningness (ME) scores and body temperature readings were collected from 25 students to assess the validity of Japanese version of Horne-Östbergs ME questionnaire. Significant differences between morning and evening types were found for acrophase (peak time) of body temperature, and ME score was significantly correlated with peak time of body temperature. These results suggest that the Japanese version of the questionnaire was valid.

DIFFERENCES IN THE TIME OR FREQUENCY OF MEALS, ALCOHOL AND CAFFEINE INGESTION, AND SMOKING FOUND BETWEEN 'MORNING' AND 'EVENING' TYPES

The present study investigated some differences between ‘morning’ and ‘evening’ types in life habits, particularly concerning meals, ingestion of caffeine and alcohol, and smoking. The Life Habits Inventory and the Japanese version of Home and Östberg Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire were administered to approximately 1500 students, and data on life habits of the morning types were compared with those of the evening types. Significant differences between these types were found in frequency of night meals, smoking, and ingestion of caffeine and alcohol. Although significant differences were not found for mealtimes, 34.8% of the evening types typically did not eat breakfast. These differences were discussed from viewpoint of chronopharmacology and personality.

Reliability of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire in Japanese Preschool Children Aged 4-6 Years.

Background The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) has been widely used as a brief behavioral screening. The aim of this study was to examine the internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the 3- to 4-year-old version of the SDQ (SDQ 3–4) in Japanese preschool children. Methods The SDQ 3–4 was administered to 754 parents who had 4- to 6-year-old children attending kindergartens or childcare centers in Wako City, Japan, at 2 different times (Time 1 and Time 2) over a 2-week interval between June and July 2012. Cronbach’s α and correlation coefficients were used to examine internal consistency and test-retest reliability, respectively. Results Of 393 parents who returned their responses at Time 1 (response rate 52.1%), 383 were used for analysis after excluding 10 responses with missing data. Their children’s mean age was 4.7 (standard deviation 0.7) years. The internal consistency (Cronbach’s α) was good for the total difficulties score (0.74) and the prosocial behavior scale (0.70). However, it was slightly worse for the emotional symptoms, conduct problems, and hyperactivity scales (0.61–0.66) and poor for the peer problems scale (0.45). Of the 383 included respondents at Time 1, 211 parents returned their responses at Time 2 (response rate: 55.1%). Test-retest reliability (correlation coefficients) was good (0.73–0.82), except for the peer problems scale (0.58). Conclusions The results support the reliability of the SDQ 3–4 being satisfactory for the total difficulties score and prosocial behavior scale and being acceptable for the emotional symptoms, conduct problems, and hyperactivity scales in Japanese preschool children aged 4–6 years.

Sleep/wake patterns and circadian typology in preschool children based on standardized parental self-reports

We studied the sleep/wake patterns and circadian typology of Japanese preschool children living in the Tokyo metropolitan area (193 boys and 190 girls, 4–6 years of age) from June to July 2012 based on a standardized parental self-reporting questionnaire. Our major findings are as follows: (1) sleep/wake timing was delayed, and the duration of nocturnal sleep (sleep period as well as time in bed) increased from that on scheduled days (weekdays) to that on free days (weekends) for all ages. (2) The duration of daily sleep (24 h), including daytime nap, was longer for 4-year-old children compared with that in 5- to 6-year-old children, but not significantly different between scheduled and free days within each age group. (3) The distribution of chronotypes was 36.3% for morning (M)-type, 48.8% for neither (N)-type and 11.2% for evening (E)-type, and this distribution was independent of sex or age. (4) Sleep/wake timing delays were observed from M-type and N-type to E-type during scheduled and free days. (5) The duration of nocturnal sleep decreased but increased for 24-h sleep time from M-type and N-type to E-type on scheduled days. (6) Sleep durations did not differ among chronotypes on free days. (7) Chronotypes were associated with parents’ diurnal preferences, mealtimes and attendance at kindergartens or childcare centers but not with sex, age, season of birth, exposure to multimedia or exposure to morning sunlight in their bedrooms. When these results were compared with those for older children and adolescents, similar sleep/wake patterns and circadian typology were observed, although to a lesser degree, in children as young as 4–6 years of age. Napping may compensate, in part, for an accumulated weekday sleep deficit. The distribution of chronotypes was associated with differences in sleep/wake timing and duration and was influenced by the parents’ diurnal preferences and lifestyles. Further research on preschool children is required to investigate whether circadian typology affects their behavioral, emotional and cognitive development.

Associations of chronotype with social jetlag and behavioral problems in preschool children

The timing, duration, and intensity of sleep are determined by the interaction between a sleep-wake-dependent homeostatic process and a sleep-wake-independent, intrinsic, clock-like circadian process. Chronotype represents individual differences in diurnal preferences, which are not only genetically determined but also influenced by social and environmental factors. Thus, the discrepancy between biological and social clocks, so-called “social jetlag”, occurs. Chronotype, social jetlag, and the links between chronotype and behavioral problems are well documented in adults and adolescents. However, such studies on young children are limited. We conducted a survey of sleep and health for preschool children attending kindergarten or childcare centers in Wako, Okayama and Kurashiki cities, Japan, between May and July 2012. A total of 654 children aged 4–6 years (342 boys and 312 girls, with an average age of 4.7 years) were assessed using the Children’s ChronoType Questionnaire and the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire. Morning (M)-type, neither (N)-type and evening (E)-type accounted for 36.2%, 54.0% and 9.8% of the participants, respectively. The weekday-to-weekend differences in midsleep time – originally proposed as the concept of social jetlag – were 11, 25 and 35 min for M-, N- and E-types, respectively. There was a negative correlation between chronotype and sleep period during weekdays (p < 0.001) and a positive correlation on weekends (p < 0.001). The weekday-to-weekend difference in sleep period was 0.5 h for E-types, whereas there was no difference for M-types. Binomial logistic regression analyses were used to examine the links between chronotype and behavioral problems, adjusted for participants’ sex, age, childcare programs and locations. Chronotype was significantly associated with hyperactivity/inattention: N-type (adjusted OR = 1.74, 95% CI = 1.03–2.95, p < 0.05) and E-type (adjusted OR = 2.47, 95% CI = 1.18–5.20, p < 0.05). E-type was significantly associated with conduct problems (adjusted OR = 2.11, 95% CI = 1.03–4.31, p < 0.05) and peer problems (adjusted OR = 2.75, 95% CI = 1.18–6.44, p < 0.05). The results suggest that E-type children are vulnerable to higher social jetlag and more behavioral problems. The immature adjustment function of their endogenous circadian pacemakers may not be able to correct a small but significant social jetlag to synchronize with their social clocks. Furthermore, guidance based on chronobiological evidence is required for parents, teachers and health professionals to help children achieve optimal sleep and reduce behavioral problems.

Epidemiological study on chronotype among preschool children in Japan: Prevalence, sleep-wake patterns, and associated factors.

ABSTRACT Our current 24-h society and the weekday–weekend switch of our social clocks may affect young children’s sleep and circadian rhythms. However, such evidence is scarce. We conducted a nationwide epidemiological study of sleep and health in preschool children aged 3–5 years attending kindergarten or childcare centers in Japan, using stratified one-stage cluster sampling. The target population was 2 969 627 individuals (as of 1 April 2013). The Children’s ChronoType Questionnaire was used to measure chronotypes (morning (M)-type, neither (N)-type and evening (E)-type), and weekday and weekend sleep–wake parameters. Randomly sampled population estimates were obtained via respondents with a person-level weight, which accounted for survey responses and poststratification. Standard errors and 95% confidence intervals were adjusted for the complex survey design using jackknife estimation. A linear regression model of the correlation between chronotype and sleep–wake parameters and a multivariate logistic regression model for the links between chronotype and putative associated factors were used for statistical analyses. The estimated prevalence of M-, N- and E-types were 31.6%, 55.9% and 10.0%, respectively. The corresponding numbers of children were 937 910, 1 659 574 and 296 083. The remaining 2.5% was not specified. The proportions of children who woke up by themselves during the weekdays were 55.1%, 43.0% and 1.9% for M-, N- and E-types, respectively. Overall, bedtime, sleep onset time, wake-up time and get-up time during the weekdays were 21:04, 21:26, 6:55 and 6:59, respectively. Nocturnal sleep period, time in bed (TIB) and 24 h TIB (TIB and nap) during the weekdays were 9.49, 9.93 and 10.55 h, respectively. Sleep–wake timings were significantly and linearly delayed from M-, N-, to E-types (p < 0.001). The weekday 24 h TIB (10.47–10.66 h) and weekend nocturnal sleep period (9.58–9.76 h) did not differ significantly among chronotypes. For E-types, socially advanced weekdays rising times (approximately 1 h) caused nocturnal sleep deficit (0.57 h). Children’s socially scheduled times (e.g. start and finish times, mealtimes and daytime nap) and their parents’ diurnal preferences had significant adjusted odds ratios among E-types, while the significant unadjusted odds ratios for morning sunlight and multimedia exposure disappeared. These results suggest the importance of chronobiologically planned sleep discipline at home as well as assessment of socially scheduled times in children.

The reliability and validity of the Japanese version of the Children's ChronoType Questionnaire (CCTQ) in preschool children

We aimed to examine the reliability and validity of the Japanese version of the Childrens ChronoType Questionnaire (CCTQ) in preschool children. The CCTQ consists of 16 items on sleep–wake parameters for scheduled and free days, a 10-item of the Morningness/Eveningness Scale (CCTQ-M/E), and a single item on chronotype. Out of 502 children aged 3–6 years living in Okayama Prefecture, we evaluated 346 (188 boys and 158 girls) between May and June 2012. Their parents filled out the questionnaires two times at an interval of two weeks. Cronbachs α of the CCTQ-M/E was 0.77. For test–retest reliability, Pearsons correlation coefficient of the CCTQ-M/E between the two observations was 0.898 (p < 0.001). Kruskal–Wallis test with post-hoc tests was used to compare sleep–wake parameters measured with the CCTQ among the three groups of children, morning (M)-type, neither (N)-type and evening (E)-type, who were classified according to the CCTQ-M/E score. Sleep–wake parameters in timing were significantly different among the children with M-type, N-type and E-type (p < 0.001). Post-hoc pairwise comparisons revealed that sleep–wake parameters in timing were significantly delayed from the M-type to the N-type children (p < 0.001), from the M-type to the E-type children (p < 0.001), and from the N-type to the E-type children (p < 0.001), except that wake-up time and get-up time were not significantly different between the children with N-type and E-type on scheduled days when their start time was regularly fixed. Out of these 346 children, we evaluated 72 (35 boys and 37 girls) to see the correlations between subjectively and objectively measured sleep–wake parameters from June to October 2012. Spearmans correlation coefficients between sleep–wake parameters measured with the CCTQ and an actigraph were 0.512–0.836 on scheduled days (p < 0.001) and 0.380–0.786 on free days (p < 0.001). Based on these findings we conclude that the Japanese version of the CCTQ is a reliable and valid measure for assessing chronotypes in preschool children.

A longitudinal study of the development of daytime sleepiness in children

Abstract This study aims to (i) investigate longitudinally developmental changes of diurnal variations of body temperature and sleepiness in preschool and school‐age children and (ii) investigate the effect of acute 2 h sleep reduction on daytime sleepiness over a 3 year period. Three subjects were evaluated over three consecutive days:two control days and one 2 h sleep reduction day. A sleep latency test was conducted five times each day at 2 h intervals from 10.00 h, and oral temperature measured every hour. The results showed that (i) daytime sleepiness was high and decreased with increasing age, (ii) an afternoon dip occurred with pubertal development, (iii) effects of sleep loss generally increased daytime sleepiness, in particular at 10.00 h, and (iv) temperature acrophase was delayed with age.