Karen D. Loch

Toward a Theory-Based Measurement of Culture

In reviewing the history of the conceptualization and measurement of “culture,†one quickly realizes that there is wide-ranging and contradictory scholarly opinion about which values, norms, and beliefs should be measured to represent the concept of “culture.†We explore an alternate theory-based view of culture via social identity theory (SIT), which suggests that each individual is influenced by plethora of cultures and sub-cultures–some ethnic, some national, and some organizational. In IS research, the culture of subjects and respondents is problematic because it is typically an overly simplistic categorization. IS research nearly always assumes that an individual living in a particular place and time belongs to a single “culture,†e.g., someone living in Egypt is automatically classified as being a member of the Egyptian culture, or, more broadly, the Arab culture. This dearth of clear concepts and measures for “culture†may explain why cross-cultural research has been so exceedingly difficult to conduct. It may also explain why it has been hard to develop and refine theories. Moreover, it may give insight into why reasonable explained variance in predictive models has not been higher. Finally, it is very possible that much cross-cultural business research could be rightly accused of advancing an “ecological fallacy†by not recognizing the individual makeup of persons with respect to culture. Using SIT (or other theory bases) as grounding for cultural research programs implies the use of certain methodological approaches. Each study would have to establish the salient “cultures†in each individual’s background and include these different “cultures†as independent variables in positivist research. In qualitative research, there would need to be an equally rigorous assessment of the cultural identifiers of each individual.

Transfer of Information Technology to the Arab World: A Test of Cultural Influence Modeling

The complex societal beliefs and values of the Arab world provide a rich setting to examine the hypothesized influence of culture on information technology transfer (ITT). Two research questions arise in this context: (1) Do cultural beliefs and values affect the transference of information technology in the Arab world? and (2) Does contact with technologically advanced societies impact ITT and systems outcomes? The present study addresses these research questions by conceptualizing and testing a cultural influence model of ITT. In this model, cultural beliefs and values are one major construct while a counterbalancing variable is the external influence of technologically advanced societies. These constructs along with the variable “national IT development†form the conceptual basis for the model. This study is the second part of a program of research investigating ITT. The setting of the study was Arab society, which allowed us to test our “cultural influence†model in, perhaps, one of the more complex cultural and social systems in the world. The program of research took place in several phases. In the early phases, Arab-American businessmen and women as well as Arabs studying in American universities were studied. In the latter phases, the cross-disciplinary research team gathered primary data in the Arab cultures of Jordan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, and the Sudan. Both quantitative and qualitative techniques were used to explore the phenomenon of ITT. This paper reports quantitative findings from the latter phase. Findings suggest that the model has explanatory power. Arab cultural beliefs were a very strong predictor of resistance to systems and thus ITT; technological culturation was also a factor. These results have implications for future theory-testing and for technology policy-setting by responsible Arab leaders. Additionally, there are implications for transnational firms and managers charged with introducing IT in foreign ports, subsidiaries, offices, and plants.

Ethics and information technology use: a factor analysis of attitudes to computer use

Abstract. In 1986 Richard O. Mason identified privacy, accuracy, property and access as four ethical issues for the information age. The research reported here sought to answer the questions: are these social issues empirically verifiable constructs? Second, what consensus exists on the factors?

Ethics and computer use

Over the past 50 years, computers have undergone transformation from monolithic number crunchers, to centralized repositories of management information systems, to distributed, networked, cyberspace support systems. During the same period, uses of computers have moved from computational problems to life support, from machine language to GUIs, from abstractions of work to virtual reality on the World-Wide Web. These transformations have brought with them situations that have ethical implications.

Personal information privacy and emerging technologies

This research presents a model of personal information privacy (PIP) that includes not only transactional data gathering, but also interorganisational data sharing. Emerging technologies are used as a lens through which the discussion of PIP management is extended. Research directions are developed for aspects of privacy, privacy‐preserving technologies, interorganisational data sharing and policy development.

Ownership, Privacy and Monitoring in the Workplace: A Debate on Technology and Ethics

A panel held at the International Conference on Information Systems, December 5–7, 1993, addressed the importance and ethicality of several issues relating to ethics and information technology use. The substance of the debate and results of audience votes on the issues are presented in this paper as a means of initiating a broader debate on the issues, for it is with debate that we reach a group consensus on acceptable behavior and practice. With consensus, we can begin to develop codes and policies that are feasible and practical for ethical computer use.Specific dilemmas debated involved the issues of privacy and ownership, including the ethicality of using company resources for personal use and monitoring compliance to company policies about computer use. In general, we found little consensus about ethicality of any of the types of conduct, although we found a high degree of consensus that the debated issues were important and should continue to be discussed. The final question concerned policies and codes. While policies and codes were believed to be necessary, they were also perceived as ineffective. Several suggestions for practical action to enhance the efficacy of ethical codes are presented.

Invitation to a public debate on ethical computer use

To obtain ethically defensible behavior in a particular situation, or context, one must first define what is considered ethically defensible in that context. Without contextual norms, people assume no norms and are then (mis)guided solely by their own experience. According to Integrated Social Contracts Theory, typical contexts include individual-only situations and situations in which the individual is a member of professional, business and social organizations. Norm development is a complex process. It requires discussion between many individuals to identify the ethical issues relevant to each context, to define ethically defensible behaviors for each, and then to decide which norms take priority in the event of a conflict. This paper argues that the importance of context identifies fundamental flaws in the notion that professional associations can address all ethical behaviors through generic codes of ethics. The arguement goes further to assert that Integrated Social Contracts Theory, if applied to universal codes of ethics, can facilitate their redefinition into a useful set of guidelines for ethical professional behavior.

Creating and Developing a Program of Global Research

This is the first part of a two-part paper that describes and analyzes a program of research (PR) in international IT studies begun in the fall of 1992 and continuing through 2004. The paper presents the first two stages which span the years of 1992 through 2000, focusing on the creation and development process for a PR, examining the concept of a PR, the inception of our PR and its maturation both in terms of theory and methodology, research team dynamics, and program implementation. We offer guidelines for initiating and maintaining programs of research, highlighting the inevitable trade-offs that occur when high administrative work loads and intensive data gathering in the global setting, often involving long periods of time abroad, have to be balanced against the ability to carry out the research at all and the rarity of the data.

Global Programs of Research: Maintenance and Extensibility

This is the second part of a two-part article that describes and analyzes a program of research (PR) in international IT studies that began in the fall of 1992. The first part spans the years 1992 through 2000 and discusses the concept of a PR, the inception of our PR, and its maturation in terms of theory and methodology, research team dynamics, and program implementation. Part II focuses on the time frame of 2000 to 2004. The work undertaken during this second period is distinctive in two areas: the examination in detail of the full range of all constructs in the final research model; and grantsmanship, which was essential to the life of the PR. Specifically, a multi-year NSF grant funded the core of in-depth work undertaken between 2000 and 2003. A second NSF grant permitted us to work with domain experts from around the world to push the stream of research forward. In Part II, we also offer a retrospective analysis, based on our experience, on the PR effort. Pros and cons are articulated and then extrapolated into practical lessons learned that will be useful to others in similar undertakings. We offer guidelines for initiating and maintaining programs of research, highlighting the inevitable trade-offs that occur when high administrative work loads and intensive data gathering in the global setting, often involving long periods of time abroad, have to be balanced with the ability to carry out the research at all and the rarity of the data. Finally, we look forward to what we term Stage 4 — the period of redirection — which is the bridge to the next program of research.

Knowledge Spheres and the Diffusion of National IT Policies

How do national ICT policies disseminate in a country? Why would there be a differential awareness of policies among various sectors and/or professions? These are the two major research questions addressed in the study reported here. Motivation for ICT adoption and use, it is argued, will generally be influenced by the set of policies on which certain sectors or professional‐groups focus. This, in turn will influence the nature of development of the ICT industry within the nation. The study uses quantitative techniques to assess sectoral differences in the diffusion of national ICT policies in Egypt by gauging the awareness of ICT policies by key decision makers within each major economic sector. Interviews with 33 top‐ranking government and IT‐sector executives are used to elicit the key ICT policies. These policies were then further studied in interviews with 47 policy‐makers and private sector managers who form the respondent base for this study. Findings show a skewed distribution of awareness of national ICT policy diffusion and that, as predicted, this distribution is related to sector‐affiliation. Thus, the sets of policies that are closest to the inherent interests of chosen sectors and professional affiliations are identified. The findings suggest that correctly positioning ICT policies can be a critical element for the implementation of national strategies that shape the direction and pace of a country‐wide development of ICT capabilities and capacity. This is especially so in developing countries, where the effects of ICTs in leveraging economic and social development are deemed to be substantial1.