Sue Conger

Requirements specification: learning object, process, and data methodologies

pccifying information requir~mcnts-dcttr~i”i~g and documenting the requirements for an information system, is arguably the key to developing successful information systems (IS). Since this is the first step in the systems development process, it is clear that not doing it effectively will have significant impact on both the effectiveness and the efficiency of the resultant system. Not getting the correct final system requirements initially is largely responsible for the cost and schedule overruns that are still fairly prevalent in IS development. Specifying information requirements is not only the most important step in developing IS, it is probably also the most difficult. The crucial aspect of the process is to develop a mental model ofthe system (i.e., to determine what the system needs to do) [6]. Once the information requirements ofthe new IS have been specified, the development process consists of successive transformations ofthat initial model until, finally, a computerbased solution to the problem is achieved. Specifying requirements is a complex task that is diff&lt for systems analysts to address, due to human prohlrrn-solving limitations [5]. Short-term memory is limited in capacity; transfer from short-term to long-term memory requires a relatively long time, approximately 5 to 10 seconds; storage and retrieval mechanisms are fallible. Short-term memory capacity is perhaps the most devastating aspect of these limitations. Classical estimates of short-term memory capacity suggested that problem solvers can effectively handle 7 ? 2 chunks of information [14], but this is an upper limit that may be drastically reduced by interference. To overcome these limitations, human problem solvers resort to various ways of effectively increasing the capacity of short-term memory as well as using external memory devices and/or techniques to support working memory. The aid most commonly used to support working memory in information requirements specification is a systems development methodology and the associated representation technique. By methodology, we mean a systematic approach to the task of systems development (see [Xl). Early methodologies provided guidelines mostly in the form ofa set of standardized activities and standardized forms to be completed; little effort was devoted to handling complexity explicitly. Subsequently, the major thrust ofmethodologies has been the desire to address complexity directly [6, 8, lo]. Despite the significance of information requirements specification to the successful design of systems and the large body of descriptive and conceptual literature on methodologies, there have been surprisingly few empirical studies conducted on the methodologies themselves. In fact, review of the literature revealed only one such study, by Yadav et al. [24], who investigated the effectiveness of data flow diagramming [8] and a variant of the systems analysis and design technique (SALT) [ZO] in specifying information requirements. They report that although data flow diagrams are easier to learn and to UT, neither produced significantly better specifications. Given the importance of methodologies to IS development and the dearth ofempirical evidence regarding their use, we conducted an exploratory study to investigate the performance ol three methodologies in aiding novice systems analysts who were learning to specify information requirements. The methodologies investigated were the structured techniques [6, 8, 251, Jackson System Development USD) [lo], and the object-oriented approach [3]. We investigated the structured techniques and JSD because they arc currently the most widely used struttured analysis methodologies (see Necco et al.) [15]. Since object-oriented approaches to systems development are receiving considerable attention in the software engineering arena and since some firms, such as Arthur Andersen Consulting, are moving toward replacing their current methods with object-oriented methods, it seemed appropriate to investigate the relative merits of an object-oriented approach in a business setting.

An overview of IT service management

“To the majority of computer scientists, whether in academia or industry, the term “services” is associated with Web services and service-oriented architectures. However, there is a broader story to be told of the remarkable growth of the service sector, which has come to dominate economic activity in most advanced economies over the last 50 years. ... The opportunity to innovate in services, to realize business and societal value from knowledge about service, to research, develop, and deliver new information services and business services, has never been greater.”

Confusion in the Ranks: IT Service Management Practice and Terminology

Abstract The Information Technology Service Management (ITSM) movement is gaining adopters throughout the world, expanding from the 2005 ratification of International Standards Organization (ISO) ISO/IEC 20000. However, this concept grew out of older frameworks such as Britains IT Infrastructure Library (ITIL) and U.S. service level management (SLM). To further confuse the landscape, there are also related terms such as business service management (BSM), the Control Objectives for Information and related Technology (CobiT), and IT governance. There is a lack of descriptive academic literature currently published, which has mainly focused on prescriptive pieces. This paper gives a background on the several contributing frameworks mentioned above, and reports on a survey U.S. IT managers to determine the extent of understanding of these terms and frameworks. The findings indicate that ITSM adoption and knowledge may be lower than some studies have indicated. There is also conceptual confusion about what constitutes ITSM, with conflation of terms and practices.

Learning to specify information requirements: the relationship between application and methodology

The systems development process involves establishing the information requirements of an application and successively transforming those requirements into a computer-based model of the application. Attention iS usually focused almost exclusively on the method of transformation, however, with little recognition of the role of the application. As a first step in examining the relevance of knowledge of the application to the systems development process, this study addresses whether there are synergistic effects of application and methodology knowledge in specifying information requirements. This was achieved via a repeated-measures protocol analysis study that manipulated both experience with the application and knowledge of the methodology. The results show that in learning to specify information requirements, novice analysts: • performed more effectively over time when trained to use a methodology applied the methodology more effectively when familiar with the application; • performed more effectively when they used procedural methodology knowledge rather than declarative methodology knowledge alone; • improved the effectiveness of their problem solving over time only when they used procedural methodology knowledge; • produced idiosyncratic results based on the application. Based on the findings of this research, it appears that research into the nature of applications, as well as methodologies, is warranted. From the viewpoint of the practitioner, since application knowledge is idiosyncratic, it may be necessary to include more than one application-knowledgable person on a systems development team.

Ethics and computer use

Over the past 50 years, computers have undergone transformation from monolithic number crunchers, to centralized repositories of management information systems, to distributed, networked, cyberspace support systems. During the same period, uses of computers have moved from computational problems to life support, from machine language to GUIs, from abstractions of work to virtual reality on the World-Wide Web. These transformations have brought with them situations that have ethical implications.

Personal information privacy and emerging technologies

This research presents a model of personal information privacy (PIP) that includes not only transactional data gathering, but also interorganisational data sharing. Emerging technologies are used as a lens through which the discussion of PIP management is extended. Research directions are developed for aspects of privacy, privacy‐preserving technologies, interorganisational data sharing and policy development.

Ownership, Privacy and Monitoring in the Workplace: A Debate on Technology and Ethics

A panel held at the International Conference on Information Systems, December 5–7, 1993, addressed the importance and ethicality of several issues relating to ethics and information technology use. The substance of the debate and results of audience votes on the issues are presented in this paper as a means of initiating a broader debate on the issues, for it is with debate that we reach a group consensus on acceptable behavior and practice. With consensus, we can begin to develop codes and policies that are feasible and practical for ethical computer use.Specific dilemmas debated involved the issues of privacy and ownership, including the ethicality of using company resources for personal use and monitoring compliance to company policies about computer use. In general, we found little consensus about ethicality of any of the types of conduct, although we found a high degree of consensus that the debated issues were important and should continue to be discussed. The final question concerned policies and codes. While policies and codes were believed to be necessary, they were also perceived as ineffective. Several suggestions for practical action to enhance the efficacy of ethical codes are presented.

Information Technology Service Management and Opportunities for Information Systems Curricula

Historically, information systems (IS) programs have taught two of the three areas of information technology (IT) management: strategy and management, and applications development. Academic programs have ignored the third area, IT operations. IT operations management is becoming increasingly important as it is recognized as consuming as much as 90% of the IT budget and as acquisition of software becomes more prevalent than development of custom applications. Along with the shift of management focus to IT operations, standards such as the IT infrastructure library (ITIL) have been adopted by businesses to guide the development of processes for IT operations that facilitate evolution to IT service management. This shift to servitizing IT management, creates an opportunity for IS programs to align with business practices by innovating in the teaching of IT service management. Several methods of incorporating ITSM material into educational programs are explored.

Emerging Technologies in Healthcare: Navigating Risks, Evaluating Rewards

EXECUTIVESUMMARY The purpose of this prescriptive research is to help decision makers become better informed about three technologies emerging in the healthcare arena by providing a basic description of the technology and describing their current applications, future healthcare deployment, potential risks, and related managerial issues. Two of the technologies, radio frequency identification (RFID) and global positioning systems (GPS), are currently available to healthcare organizations and appear capable of decreasing cost but may require significant initial investment and have disruptive potential. The third technology, nanotechnology, has limited current use but may revolutionize both the delivery of medicine and hospital infrastructure management. With cautious attention to managerial issues and meticulous attention to implementation details, healthcare organizations that can successfully navigate the coming technologically driven paradigm shifts will emerge more resilient organizations.

Invitation to a public debate on ethical computer use

To obtain ethically defensible behavior in a particular situation, or context, one must first define what is considered ethically defensible in that context. Without contextual norms, people assume no norms and are then (mis)guided solely by their own experience. According to Integrated Social Contracts Theory, typical contexts include individual-only situations and situations in which the individual is a member of professional, business and social organizations. Norm development is a complex process. It requires discussion between many individuals to identify the ethical issues relevant to each context, to define ethically defensible behaviors for each, and then to decide which norms take priority in the event of a conflict. This paper argues that the importance of context identifies fundamental flaws in the notion that professional associations can address all ethical behaviors through generic codes of ethics. The arguement goes further to assert that Integrated Social Contracts Theory, if applied to universal codes of ethics, can facilitate their redefinition into a useful set of guidelines for ethical professional behavior.